PRINCIPLES OF THINKING-LEARNING

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pınar Uran Kurtgöz

Izmir Democracy University Faculty of Medicine

Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
 Thinking is the mental activity that is carried out through the concepts that the
individual acquires in the learning process, the images he/ she uses, thoughts and
movements, and symbols such as words and terms.
 Thought; It includes mental activities that we perform consciously, such as
inference, reasoning, remembering, doubting, wanting, feeling, understanding,
comprehending.
 Thinking is also the mental process that consists of operations such as making
comparisons, analyzing, making connections, and concepts.
 People understand the process of thinking; It uses it consciously to solve a problem,
to achieve certain goals, to make sense of information and events, and to get to
know the people better encountered.
 Imagining: It is the visualization of the image of the situation or event being
considered. For example, when you think about organizing your room at work, you
first visualize where your desk or bookshelf would look better, and then move them
around.
 We can consider thinking under 4 main headings;
 1) Conceptual Thinking
 2) Verbal Thinking
 3) Problem Solving
 4) Reasoning
 1) Conceptual Thinking: A concept is a symbolic structure that represents some
common and general characteristics or qualities of objects. Concepts in everyday life;
Learning to distinguish is learned through the definition of context and terms.
 2) Verbal Thinking: Most of the time, for a person ‘’thinking’’is a verbal task; It
encompasses the concepts that the words tell as well as the words themselves. Beyond
that, thinking is controlled by linguistic rules called grammar.
 According to the behavioral theorist Watson, a word that we say internally (we also
make small muscle movements without realizing it while saying the word internally) acts
as a stimulus for another word, and this process continues as a chain and thinking takes
place. A behavior is sometimes thought of in our minds as an "internal movement" with
motor habit that cannot be thought of verbally.
 Language : Language is a thinking tool unique to human beings. There is a close
connection between thinking and language. Language expresses thoughts by
projecting internal symbols outwardly. In a way, language is a tool of thoughts.
3-Problem Solving:

Graham Wallas proposed one of the first complete models of the creative
thinking process. Wallas described how it consists of the four-stage process
of preparation (or saturation), incubation, illumination and verification (or
implementation).
What happens in the four stages of creativity?

Preparation: This first stage is all about gathering information. This is the stage
where you do user research and empathize with the users in order to define
the problem and your users’ needs.creative ideas are always solutions to a
problem or a need. You provoke your habitual thinking in order to better
understand your design problem, your idea and your design space.
 Incubation: At this stage, you take a step  Verification/implementation: You
back from the problem and allow your evaluate, analyze and build on your
mind to wander to let it contemplate idea. You then polish it to make sure that
and work the problem through. You it’s both useful and novel. At this stage,
nurture the unconscious thought you would also often choose to
process, for example, by staying open to prototype and test your idea in order to
the ideas that come to you while you do find out if it meets the users’ needs which
the dishes or go for a walk. You open you defined at the preparation stage.
your mind to all ideas—even the crazy
ones.
 Illumination: This is the third stage. This
stage essentially describes the classic
“aha” moment of insight. However, the
fact that illumination has an entire stage
devoted to it shows that it’s essentially
not just a quick moment of insight and
helps us understand that it’s something
we can—and should—work towards
achieving.
 4- Reasoning:
 It is thinking according to certain rules. One of the 4 stages for thoughts in
problem solving is the stage of comprehension or enlightenment, but in
daily life, some or most of the daily problems are not with comprehension;
with two other general methods; It is solved by mechanical means and
reasoning.
 Mechanical solutions; It can be either in the form of trial and error or
memorization (using the methods they have used successfully in the past).
 The type of problem that requires the most thinking is those based on
reasoning methods. Reasoning and thinking are different concepts, there
are many examples of thinking that do not involve reasoning. Ex: dreams.
 Thinking is called reasoning only when it follows certain rules.
 Development of thought  Thought processes While children first
think with visual images;
 Primary thought processes As he grows into adulthood, he thinks in
 Concrete concepts.

 Animistic  Higher cognitive system

To establish the current goals and to
 Magical prepare the necessary roadmap to
achieve this goal, to compare the
 Ambivalent purpose with the current situation, to
 Secondary thought processes take regulatory action if there is a
(Conceptual thinking) difference between the purpose and the
current situation, to evaluate the
 Abstract effectiveness at every stage of the
process and to ensure that the targeted
 Realistic goal is achieved.
 Logical
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

 At the end of an experience, changing behaviors and reactions to better meet

the needs and forming them in a new order is called "Learning".
 1- Cognitive-perceptual or Verbal Learning
 2- Behavioral Learning
 It is divided into two categories.
 1- Cognitive-perceptual or Verbal Learning: It is the learning process based on
mental functions. Ex: Memorizing a poem, solving a problem, gaining
knowledge on a subject.
 2- Behavioral Learning: Environmental events and behaviors that can be
observed in response to these events gain importance. It is a behaviorist
approach that emphasizes the importance of observable behavior.
 Today, two categories are integrated and adopted in learning.
 Learning; We can define it as a fairly continuous change in behavior as a
result of repetition or experience. There are 3 important elements in this
definition;
 1- Learning is a change in behavior; Behavior change occurs in a positive
or negative way.
 2- It is the change that occurs as a result of repetition or experience.
Changes that occur as a result of growth, maturation or deterioration of
bodily integrity-functions are not counted as learning.
 Growth-related behaviors can also be predicted chronologically without
requiring special training. For example: A child can walk around the age of
1, and a 2-word sentence can be made around the age of 2.
 3- In order to be able to call it learning, the change must be quite
continuous. Short-term changes in behavior, such as fatigue, insomnia,
discomfort, etc., are distinguished in this sense from learning.
 Learning can also occur if performance (changes in behavior) is not
demonstrated. The unobservable may have been learned in a hidden way.
 Some factors such as anxiety, fatigue, motivation can change
performance. Motivation is required for learning to turn into action.
"General state of arousal" is another must condition. In order for learning to
be efficient, it is necessary to be awake and alert.
 Motivation brings the organism into a state of general arousal. Thus, it
ensures that behaviors take place and that appropriate behavior is
rewarded.
 Another concept for learning is the so-called
"species-specific readiness", in which the organism
can be taught the behaviors that its genetic
equipment allows. Preparing each type of organism
to perform certain behaviors; some of them are not
ready to do.
 Although there are different styles in the realization
of learning, there are 3 basic learning that covers
almost all learning situations: Behavioral Theory,
Social Learning Theory and Cognitive Theory.
 1) Behaviorist Theory
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
2) Social Learning
3) Cognitive Learning
 Behaviorist Theory

 Classical Conditioning and Operant

Conditioning are called "Associative
Learning".
 The dog experiment of the Russian
physiologist Pavlov is the historical
example of Classical Conditioning.
 Classical Conditioning

 In many experimental studies on classical conditioning, they have reached

very important results in terms of learning. These results are functions such as
reinforcement in conditioning, stimulus generalization, differentiation,
extinction, spontaneous return, etc.
 Reinforcement: As we will remember in classical conditioning experiments
(eg. Bell + Meat Saliva) had to be paired with an unconditioned stimulus in
order for the organism to be conditioned against a neutral stimulus. The
unconditioned stimulus, also known as the natural stimulus, acts as a
reinforcer that continues the response of the organism to the conditioned
stimulus. The giving of the reinforcer is also called reinforcement. For
example, reinforcer is the milk for the baby conditioned against the bottle;
Reinforcement is the administration of milk.
 Generalization: When a conditioned stimulus causes a response in the organism,
stimuli similar to that stimulus produce the same effect. In Pavlov's experiments,
the dog, which was conditioned to the sound of the bell, also reacted with a
bell when it heard other similar sounds. A student who gets a poor grade
because he cannot meet the time in the exam may also show some affective
reactions such as anxiety and fear. If the same student who takes another exam
reacts like anxiety in that exam, we can say that the student has a
generalization reaction.
 Differentiation: In generalization, there is the same reaction to similarities, while in
differentiation, there is a reaction to stimuli whose result ends in a reinforcer. In
one experiment, they first give subjects a low-pitched tone followed by a shock.
But its high-pitched tone is not followed by shock. The subjects first reacted
when they heard the high-pitched sound, but then only reacted to the low
tone. In other words, the subjects distinguished between high-pitched sound
and low-pitched sound.
 Extinction and Spontaneous come back: If the organism is exposed only to the
conditioned stimulus with a certain number of repetitions and is not reinforced with an
unconditioned stimulus once in a while, extinction occurs in the response. For example,
let's say a student has stage anxiety because his friends laugh at him while he is giving a
presentation. If the student's friends do not laugh every time the student goes on the
board for a while, the student's stage anxiety will first decrease and then fade out. If the
student starts to experience stage fright again when the student is laughed at again for a
while after extinction, this is called spontaneous coming back.
 Shading: It is the recollection of one stimulus by suppressing the other stimulus. The point to
be considered here is that both stimuli are in the same environment. Ex: A man falls into the
sea. He is extremely afraid of water, and the man, who does not know how to swim, hugs
another snake he has in the water and tries to get away.
 Blocking: In blocking, there is a time difference between the two warnings. One of the
stimuli was seen before and the other after. For example: A person likes a bot in the first
store he enters, he does not like a bot in the next store he enters because his mind is
always on the bot in the first store he enters. Here, the first bot has blocked all other bots.
 In psychiatry, treatment techniques that predict reconditioning are also used in the
treatment of maladaptive behaviors (phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorders, anxiety
disorder) acquired within the framework of the classical conditioning model.
 Operant Conditioning
 Operant conditioning, is a theory of learning where behavior is
influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced
(rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior that is punished
will occur less frequently.
 The work of Skinner was rooted in the view that classical
conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of
complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to
understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its
consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
 Positive reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his
theory of operant conditioning. In positive reinforcement, a
response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the
repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a
consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your
teacher gives you 50 TL each time you complete your homework
(i.e., a reward), you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the
future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your
homework.
 Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state
following a response. For example, if you do not complete your
homework, you give your teacher 50 TL. You will complete your
homework to avoid paying 50 TL, thus strengthening the behavior
of completing your homework.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

 Social learning theory, introduced by psychologist Albert Bandura, proposed that learning
occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling and is influenced by factors such as
attention, motivation, attitudes, and emotions. The theory accounts for the interaction of
environmental and cognitive elements that affect how people learn.

 The theory suggests that learning occurs because people observe the consequences of
other people's behaviors. Bandura's theory moves beyond behavioral theories, which
suggest that all behaviors are learned through conditioning, and cognitive theories, which
consider psychological influences such as attention and memory.

 According to Bandura, people observe behavior either directly through social interactions
with others or indirectly by observing behaviors through media. Actions that are rewarded
are more likely to be imitated, while those that are punished are avoided.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

 Social cognitive theory (SCT), holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be
directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside
media influences. This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura as an extension of his social learning
theory. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the
consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to
guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior
they already learned.[In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and
either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of
the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and
the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media
provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.
 What is an example of Social Cognitive Theory?
 Think of a time that you have learned a skill or behavior from observing another person. For
example, you may have learned altruistic behavior from seeing your parents bring food to a homeless
person, or you may have learned how to train a dog from watching The Dog Whisperer.
 How does social learning theory differ from cognitive theory?
 Cognitive learning theory focuses on learning based on how people think, speak and
problem-solve. Social learning theory expands the idea of learning by focusing on the
impact of the learning environment.
 Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory highlights that people acquire new
behavior (learn) through observation of others.
 Social Cognitive Theory: The social cognitive theory highlights that the acquisition,
maintenance, and change of behavior is a result of the interplay of personal, behavioral,
and environmental influences.