6.

Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics

Learning Objectives: Understand basics of electronics (semiconductors, integrated circuits (ICs)
and microcomputer), Identify sensors & actuators with their functions, and examine EFI.
6.1 Basics of Electronics
Electronics is the science or technology that deals with the functions of electrons, as well as the
development and application of parts, circuits, and devices involving this technology. (Transistors,
diodes, ICs (Integrated Circuits), and microprocessors are some examples of applications). ICs and
microprocessors are comprised of electronic parts such as transistors and diodes. These electronic
devices have replaced many of the mechanical devices of the past.
Electronic devices can be designed with more functions and more compactness than mechanical
devices. Electronic components are the heart of computers. Knowing how electronic components
work helps take the mystery out of automotive electronics.
6.1.1 Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material with an electrical resistance higher than that of good conductors such
as copper or iron, but lower than that of insulators such as rubber or glass. The two most commonly
used semiconductor materials are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si). However, in their pure state, these
are not suitable for practical use as semiconductors. For this reason, they must be doped. When
another material is added to a semiconductor material in very small amounts, it is called doping. The
doping elements are called impurities; therefore, after their addition, the germanium and silicon are
no longer considered pure elements.

Characteristics of a semiconductor:
 As its temperature increases, its electrical resistance decreases.
 Its electrical conductivity increases when mixed with certain other substances.
 Its electrical resistance changes when exposed to light, magnetism, or mechanical stress.
 It emits light when voltage is applied to it. etc.
Semiconductors can be divided into two types: N- type and P-type.
N-type semiconductors: An n-type
semiconductor consists of a silicon (Si) or
germanium (Ge) base or substrate, which has
been doped with a slight amount of arsenic
(As) or phosphorus (P) in order to provide it
with many free electrons, which can easily
move through the silicon or germanium to
provide electrical current. The "n" of an n-type
semiconductor stands for "negative".
P-type semiconductors: A p-type
semiconductor, on the other hand, consists of
a silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) substrate that
has been doped with gallium (Ga) or indium
(In) to provide "holes", which can be thought
of as "missing" electrons, and hence as
positive charges flowing in a direction
opposite that of free electrons. The "p" of a p-
type semiconductor stands for "positive".
Diodes
A diode is an electrical one-way check valve made by combining a P-type material and an N-type
material. There are several types of diodes:
 Ordinary rectifying diode
 Zener diode
 LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
 Photodiode
The diagrams show how an electrical current flows through a diode.
(1) When the positive pole (+) of the battery is connected to the p-side and the negative pole (-) to
the n-side, the positive holes of a p-type semiconductor and the positive pole of the battery repel each
other. And the free electrons of an n-type semiconductor and the negative pole of the battery repel
each other, thus pushing them towards the p-n joining area. As a result, the free electrons and the
positive holes attract each other, thus allowing the current to flow across the p-n joining area.
(2) When the connections at the battery are reversed, the positive holes of the p-type semiconductor
and the negative pole of the battery attract each other, and the free electrons of the n-type
semiconductor and the positive pole of the battery attract each other, thus pulling away from the p-n
joining area. As a result, a layer that contains neither free electrons nor positive holes is created at
the p-n joining area, thus preventing the current from flowing.
Ordinary Diode: An ordinary diode allows a current to flow
only in one direction from the p-side to the n-side. A minimum
voltage is required for a current to flow from the p-side to the n-
side. Here are examples of voltage requirements: Silicon diode
(A): About 0.3V and Germanium diode (B): About 0.7V. The
current will not flow if a voltage is applied in the opposite
direction (from the n-side to the p-side). Although an extremely
small current practically flows, called the reverse leakage
current, it is treated as non-flowing because it does not affect the
operation of the actual circuit. However, if this reverse leakage
voltage is sufficiently increased, the amperage of the current
allowed through by the diode will suddenly increase. This
phenomenon is called diode breakdown, and the voltage that is
applied is called the breakdown voltage.
Ordinary diode provides rectification.
1. Half-wave rectification: Voltage from an AC generator is applied to a diode. Since the voltage
shown between (a) and (b) is applied to the diode toward to the forward direction, the current
passes through the diode. However, because the voltage shown between (b) and (c) is applied to
the diode toward to the reverse direction, the current is not allowed to pass through the diode.
Since only one half of the current which is generated by the generator is allowed to pass through
the diode.

2. Full-wave rectification: When terminal A of the generator is positive, terminal B is negative,

and the current flows as shown in the upper diagram of illustration (2). When the polarity of the
terminals is reversed, the current flows as shown in the lower diagram of illustration (2). This
means that output current always flows in only one direction through resistor R.
Application example: Ordinary rectifying diodes are used as rectifiers for alternators.
Zener Diode: While a Zener diode allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same way
as an ordinary diode, it also allows current to flow in the reverse direction under certain conditions.
In the forward direction, current flows from the p-side to the n-side through a Zener diode in the same
way as an ordinary diode. In the reverse direction, a current exceeding a predetermined voltage flows
through a Zener diode. This is called a Zener voltage, which remains practically constant regardless
of the amperage of the current. A Zener diode can be assigned with different Zener voltages
depending on its application or purpose.

Application example: Zener diodes are used for various purposes, one of the most important of these
being the voltage regulator for an alternator. The output voltage is controlled constantly, by
incorporating the Zener diode into an electrical circuit.

LED (Light-Emitting Diode): The LED is a p-n joining diode, which is the same as an ordinary
diode. It emits light when a current passes through it in the forward direction. LEDs can emit light in
various colors, such as red, yellow, and green. LEDs have the following characteristics:
 Smaller heat generation and longer life than ordinary light bulbs.
 Emit bright light with low power consumption.
 React with low voltage (quick reaction speed).
Application example: LEDs are used in high-mount stop (brake) lights and indicator lights, etc.
Photodiode: The photodiode is a p-n joining diode that consists of a semiconductor and a lens. If a
reverse direction voltage is applied to a photodiode that is exposed to light, a reverse current will
flow. The amperage of this current will vary in proportion to the amount of light that falls on the
photodiode. In other words, the photodiode can determine the amount of the light by detecting the
amperage of the reverse current when the reverse voltage is applied.
Application example: Photodiodes are used in the solar sensors for air conditioners, etc.

Transistors
Ordinary Transistors: A transistor contains three layers consisting of a p-type semiconductor
sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors, or an n-type semiconductor sandwiched between
two p-type semiconductors.
An electrode is attached to each substrate layer: B (base), E (emitter), and C (collector). Ordinary
transistors come in two varieties, n-p-n and p-n-p, depending on how the semiconductors are
arranged. A transistor performs Amplification and Switching functions.
Basic operation: In an n-p-n transistor, when current IB flows from B to E, current IC flows from C
to E. In a p-n-p transistor, when current IB flows from E (emitter) to B (base), current IC flows from
E to C. The current IB is called the base current, and current IC is called the collector current.
Therefore the current IC will not flow unless the current IB flows.

In an ordinary transistor, the collector current (IC) and the base current (IB) have the relationship
shown in the diagram. Ordinary transistors have two basic functions or uses: As shown in the graph
on the left, portion "A" can be used as a signal amplifier and portion "B" can be used as a switch.
Signal amplification: In range "A" of the graph, the collector current is 10 to 1,000 times the base
current. Thus, the signal that the input signal is enlarged is output from the output terminal when the
electrical signal “B” (base) of the transistor is applied as the input.
Switching function: In a transistor, the collector current (IC) will not flow unless the base current
(IB) flows. Therefore, the collector current can be turned ON and OFF by turning the base current
(IB) ON and OFF. This characteristic of a transistor can be utilized as a relay switch.

Application example: Transistors are used in numerous circuits. It uses for vehicle speed sensor and
injector. Note: There is no functional difference between n-p-n and p-n-p transistors.
Phototransistor: When the phototransistor receives light while power (+) is applied to its collector
and ground (-) is applied to its emitter, a current flows through the circuit. The amperage of the
current that flows through the circuit varies by the amount of light that shines on the phototransistor.
Therefore, the light that shines on the phototransistor has the same function as that of the base current
of an ordinary transistor.

Application example: In automobiles, phototransistors are used in deceleration sensors, etc.

Thermistor: A thermistor is a type of semiconductor whose electrical resistance changes with
changes in temperature. In other words, a thermistor can determine the temperature by detecting
resistance.
In the most common type of thermistor, a
negative temperature coefficient thermistor,
the resistance decreases as the temperature
increases. There is also a positive temperature
coefficient thermistor, in which the resistance
increases as the temperature increases.
Application example: In automobiles,
thermistors are used in the water temperature
sensor and intake air temperature sensor, etc.
6.1.2 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
An IC is a combination of several to several thousand electrical circuits containing transistors, diodes,
capacitors, resistors, etc. These are built into or onto a several millimeter-square silicon chip, and
placed in a ceramic or plastic package.
A single IC can have several special abilities and functions, including the ability to logically compare
two signals or numerical values, the ability to amplify an input voltage, etc.
ICs have several advantages over non-integrated circuits:
 Since many elements can be built into or onto a single silicon chip, contact junctions can be
reduced considerably, resulting in reduced failures.
 They are much smaller and lighter.
 Production costs are much lower.
Electrical signals can be divided into two types: analog and digital.
1. Analog signal: Analog signals change
continuously and smoothly over time. Thus,
the general characteristic of an analog signal is
that its output changes in proportion to its
input.
2. Digital signal: Digital signals change (ON
and OFF) intermittently over time. The general
characteristic of a digital circuit is that its
output changes suddenly when its input
increases to a certain level. For example, while
the input increases from 0 V to 5 V, the output
remains at 0 V until the input reaches 5 V.
However the output jumps suddenly to 5 V at
the instant the input reaches 5 V. ON and OFF
indicate whether a signal is being sent or not.
Normally, ON is represented as 1 and OFF as
0. When a voltage is used as an input signal it
is necessary to make a certain voltage as
standard. Then, all voltages above the standard
voltage are 1 signals, and those below it are 0
signals. For example, if the standard voltage of
5 V is set, the computer will determine that 9
V, 7 V, and 6 V signals are 1, and that each of
these represents an input signal. Signals of 2 V
and 0 V, on the other hand, will be considered
“0” and no input signal will be considered to
exist.
Logic Circuits: Digital ICs contain several different elements. The circuits in a digital IC are called
logic circuits or digital circuits, and are made up of combinations of different types of so called gates,
such as NOT, OR, NOR, AND, and NAND gates. Because these gates have the special ability to
logically process two or more signals, they are also called logic gates. A certain logical relationship
is established between digital signal inputs and outputs. A truth table represents the relationship
between digital signal inputs and outputs in a table format. In a truth table, 1 represents the presence
of a voltage, and 0, its absence.
Reading assignment: the symbol and the truth table of each gates.
6.1.3 Microcomputer
A microcomputer receives signals from input devices, processes those signals, and controls output
devices. At Toyota, a microcomputer is called an ECU (Electronic Control Unit). In vehicle systems,
input devices are sensors, and output devices are actuators. A microcomputer consists of a CPU
(Central Processing Unit), various memory devices, and an I/O (input/ output) interface.
Memory: Memory is comprised electric circuits that store programs to be operated or data to be
exchanged. There are two types of memory: ROM (Read-Only Memory), and RAM (Random Access
Memory). The ROM cannot be changed or deleted. Thus, the stored data will not disappear even if
the power is turned off. For this reason, the ROM is used for storing programs that do not need to be
changed or deleted. The RAM is a type of memory in which data can be changed or deleted. Any
data that is stored disappears when the power is turned off. Therefore, the RAM is used for storing
data that can be changed or deleted through calculations performed by a CPU.
CPU: The CPU is the functional center of a computer that consists of a control device and a
computing device.
It executes the commands that are ordered by
a program according to the signals from the
input devices, and controls the output devices.
I/O interface: An I/O interface converts the
data from input devices into signals that can be
identified by the CPU and memory. In
addition, it reconverts the CPU-processed data
into signals that can be identified by the output
devices. Because the data transfer speeds of
the I/O devices, CPU, and memory devices are
different, one of the functions of an I/O
interface is to adjust those speeds. Figure: ECU
6.2 Sensors and Actuators
Computer controlled systems continually monitor the operating condition of today's vehicles.
Through sensors, computers receive vital information about a number of conditions, allowing minor
adjustments to be made far more quickly and accurately than mechanical systems. Sensors convert
temperature, pressure, speed, position and other data into either digital or analog electrical signals.
While a vehicle may have many different sensors, there are three main categories: voltage-
generating, resistive and switches. A voltage-generating sensor generates its own voltage signal in
relation to the mechanical condition it monitors. This signal in turn relays to the computer data about
the condition of the system it controls. A resistive sensor reacts to changes in mechanical conditions
through changes in its resistance. The computer supplies a regulated voltage or reference voltage to
the sensor and measures the voltage drop across the sensor to determine the data.
Switch sensors toggle a voltage from the computer high or low, or supply an "on" or "off" voltage
signal to the computer. This type of sensor may be as simple as a switch on the brake pedal or as
complex as a phototransistor speed sensor.
The computer uses the sensor data to control different systems on a vehicle through the use of
actuators. An actuator is an electromechanical device such as a relay, solenoid or motor. Actuators
can adjust engine idle speed, change suspension height or regulate the fuel metered into the engine.
Resistive sensors: Switch sensors:
 Potentiometers  Phototransistors and LEDs
 Thermistors  Speed sensors
 Piezo resistive  G-sensors (Air Bag Impact Sensors)
Voltage generating sensors: Actuators:
 Piezo electric  Stepper motors
 Zirconia-dioxide  Solenoids
 Magnetic inductance
6.2.1 Resistive Sensors
Potentiometers
A potentiometer is a variable resistor that is commonly used as a sensor. A potentiometer has three
terminals: one for power input, one for a ground and one to provide a variable voltage output. A
potentiometer is a mechanical device whose resistance can be varied by the position of the movable
contact on a fixed resistor. The movable contact slides across the resistor to vary the resistance and
as a result varies the voltage output of the potentiometer. The output becomes higher or lower
depending on whether the movable contact is near the resistors supply end or ground end.

The vane type air flow meter on an EFI equipped vehicle is a common location on a Toyota for a
sensor that uses a potentiometer. This sensor converts the air flow meter vane opening angle to a
voltage and sends it to the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). This signal allows the ECU to determine
the volume of air that is entering the engine.
Some models also use a potentiometer as the throttle position sensor (TP). The potentiometer in
this case is attached to the throttle shaft of the throttle body. As the shaft is rotated the voltage output
of the potentiometer changes. The voltage output of the potentiometer supplies data to the ECU about
the throttle opening angle.
Thermistors
Thermistors are variable resistors whose resistance changes in relation to temperature. Thermistors
can have either a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) or a positive temperature coefficient (PTC).
A thermistor with a negative temperature coefficient will decrease in resistance as the temperature is
increased. On the other hand, a thermistor with a positive temperature coefficient will increase in
resistance as the temperature is increased. The thermistor has two terminals, one for power and one
for ground. A reference voltage is supplied to one terminal through a fixed series resistor located
inside the computer. The other terminal of the thermistor is connected to ground, usually back
through the computer.
The computer monitors the voltage after the internal fixed resistor and compares this voltage to the
reference voltage to determine the temperature of the thermistor. The relationship between the two
voltages changes as the temperature of the thermistor changes.

The coolant temperature sensor (ECT) and the air temperature sensor in the air flow meter are both
NTC thermistors. Thermistors are also used as sending units for temperature gauges such as the
coolant temperature gauge. The TCCS ECU uses data from the coolant temperature sensor and air
temperature sensor to help determine the proper amount of fuel and how long to open the fuel
injectors. The ECU also uses this data to determine how much the ignition timing should be advanced
as well as the proper setting for the ISC to maintain the proper idle speed. When either the air
temperature or the coolant temperature is low, the respective thermistor's resistance increases and the
computer receives a high voltage signal at the respective sensor wire. Conversely, a high temperature
at either sensor results in a low voltage signal due to the lower resistance of the thermistor.
Piezo Resistive
A piezo resistive sensor is a resistor circuit constructed on a thin silicon wafer. Physically flexing or
distorting the wafer a small amount changes its resistance. This type of sensor is usually used as a
pressure sensing device such as a manifold pressure sensor.
One of the most important piezo resistive sensors is the manifold pressure sensor (MAP) which
monitors the air intake volume for Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI). The signal it sends to the ECU
determines the basic fuel injection duration and ignition advance angle. Within the sensor is a silicon
chip combined with a vacuum chamber. One side of the chip is exposed to the intake manifold
pressure and the other side to the internal perfect vacuum in the chamber. A change in the intake
manifold pressure causes the shape of the silicon chip to change, with the resistance value of the chip
fluctuating in relation to the degree of deformation. An integrated circuit converts the fluctuation to
a voltage signal that is sent to the ECU, where the air-fuel ratio is regulated. The sensor has three
external terminals: one for power, one for ground and one to provide the voltage signal to the
computer. The voltage signal varies with the pressure in the intake manifold.
Another use for this same type of sensor is to sense turbocharger boost. On turbocharged engines,
the sensor is used to measure pressures that are higher than atmospheric pressure and to supply
corresponding voltage signals to the ECU. To prevent engine damage, the ECU can cut off the fuel
being injected if the manifold pressure becomes too high.
6.2.2 Voltage Generating Sensors
Piezo Electric
Piezo electricity is generated by pressure on certain crystals, such as quartz, which will develop a
potential difference, or voltage, on the crystal face. When the crystal flexes or vibrates, an AC voltage
is produced.
Knock sensors, which are becoming more common, take advantage of this phenomenon by sending
the ECU a signal that engine knock is occurring. The ECU in turn retards the ignition timing to stop
the knocking. Knock sensors contain a piezo electric element which, when deformed by cylinder
block vibration caused by knocking, generates a voltage.

There are two styles of knock sensors used. The mass type produces a voltage output over wide
range, but the signal is greatest at a vibration of approximately 7 kHz. The other style is the resonance
type which only produces a significant voltage signal when exposed to a vibration of approximately
7 kHz. Since the voltage output from either knock sensor varies continually, the system is highly
susceptible to electromagnetic and radio interference. The computer can be fooled by these stray
electrical signals if they get mixed with the knock sensor signal. For this reason the signal wire
running from the sensor to the ECU is a special ground- shielded type. The shield surrounds the
signal wire and is connected to ground so any electrical interference is taken to ground. If this shield
is damaged or not grounded, the electrical interference can reach the ECU and cause it to retard the
timing unnecessarily.
Zirconia-Dioxide (Oxygen Sensors)
The oxygen sensor (O2S), located in the exhaust manifold, senses whether the air-fuel ratio is rich
or lean, and sends signals to the ECU which in turn makes minor corrections to the amount of fuel
being metered. This is necessary for the three-way catalytic converter to function properly.
There are two kinds of oxygen sensors: zirconia and Titania. The zirconia oxygen sensor is
constructed in a bulb configuration from zirconia dioxide. A thin platinum plate is attached to both
the inside and outside of the bulb. The inner area is exposed to the atmosphere and the outside is
exposed to the exhaust. When the sensor is heated to approximately 600˚F, electrically charged
oxygen ions form on the platinum plates. The amount of oxygen to which each plate is exposed
determines how many ions form on the plates. When there is a difference in the number of ions on
the plates, a difference in potential or voltage occurs between the two plates.

The less oxygen there is in the exhaust, the greater the voltage produced. When the air-fuel mixture
is lean, the voltage created is low. Conversely, when the mixture is rich, the voltage is high.
The Titania oxygen sensor does not produce a voltage. Instead, it undergoes a change in resistance
in relation to the oxygen content in the exhaust. This type of oxygen sensor is referred to as a thick
film sensor. It consists of a piece of Titania with two wires connected to it located at the end of an
insulator. The sensor is not exposed to the atmosphere only to the exhaust. Because the operating
temperature must remain constant, the sensor has an electric heater. After the sensor is at operating
temperature, the amount of oxygen to which the Titania is exposed, will change the physical
resistance of the sensor. The ECU supplies a reference voltage to the sensor and monitors the voltage
at the signal wire, similar to a thermistor.
Magnetic Inductance
Magnetic inductance sensors consist of a coil of wire around an iron core plus a permanent magnet.
The magnet can be either stationary or movable. If the magnet is the moving member, as it passes
the coil the magnetic lines of force cut through the coil and a voltage is produced. Since the north
and south poles of the magnet alternate as they pass the coil, the voltage polarity also alternates. As
the speed of the magnet rotating past the coil is increased a larger voltage is produced and the
frequency of the voltage polarity changes is increased.
This same type of sensor can also work if the magnet is stationary and attached to the core of the coil.
When a toothed reluctor, or rotor (made from a magnetic material) is rotated past the coil and magnet,
the magnetic lines of force move and cut through the coil. The lines of force cutting through the coil
will produce the same type of voltage output as when the magnet was moving.
This type of sensor is commonly used as a wheel speed sensor on ABS equipped vehicles. This
sensor is also used in the distributor to determine RPM and crankshaft position. Since the voltage
output of this sensor is varying continually and is low at low speeds, the computer must be able to
sense the small voltage. If electrical interference is allowed to combine with the signal voltage, the
computer could be fooled. To prevent stray electrical interference, the signal wire usually has a
ground shield formed around it like the knock sensor.

The G signal and NE signal are generated by the pickup coil, in which the camshaft position sensor
(CMP) or crankshaft position sensor (CKP), and the signal plate or the timing rotor. The
information from these two signals is combined by the engine ECU to comprehensively detect the
crankshaft angle and engine speed.
6.2.3 Switch Type Sensors
Phototransistor and LED
As discussed in the previously, a phototransistor is a transistor that is activated or turned on by light.
When combined with a LED and a rotating slotted wheel in a vehicle speed sensor, a phototransistor
can supply vehicle speed data to a computer.
In this type of sensor the LED is aimed at the phototransistor. When the slotted wheel is rotated by
the speedometer cable, it breaks the beam of light. The beam of light is interrupted 20 times per
revolution. The ECU supplies a reference voltage to the collector of the phototransistor and the
emitter is connected to ground. Each time the light hits the phototransistor, it turns it on just like a
toggle switch. Each time the phototransistor is turned on, the wire from the ECU is connected to
ground and the voltage is pulled down to 0 volts. The ECU can count these pulses and calculate
vehicle speed.
This type of sensor is also used as a G Sensor or deceleration sensor on all Trucks equipped with
ABS. This sensor has two LEDs aimed at two phototransistors that are separated by a slotted plate
on a fulcrum. When the vehicle is decelerated, the plate pivots on the fulcrum and the slots in the
plate line up with one or the other or both of the LEDs and phototransistors-depending on the rate of
deceleration. These signals are sent to the computer so it can determine the deceleration rate for ABS
to operate properly.
Reed Switches
The reed switch is commonly used as a speed sensor or position sensor. It consists of a set of contacts
that open when adjacent to a magnet. In the speed sensor application, the magnet is attached to the
speedometer cable and rotates with the cable. Each time one of the poles of the magnet passes the
switch the contacts open and then close. A voltage is supplied to one contact on the switch and the
other contact is connected to ground. Each time the points close, the voltage is pulled down to 0 volts,
just like the phototransistor speed sensor.
6.2.4 Actuators
Stepper Motor
Essentially, stepper motors are digital actuators; in other words, they are either on or off. They move
in fixed increments in both directions, and can have over 120 steps of motion. Stepper motors are
commonly used to enable the ECU to control idle speed. In most fuel injection systems, the stepper
motor controls an idle air bypass built into the throttle body.
In an idle speed control valve (ISCV), (located in the air intake chamber) a stepper motor is built into
the ISCV where it rotates a valve shaft either in or out. This in turn increases or decreases the
clearance between the valve and the valve seat, thereby regulating the amount of air allowed to pass
through. The ISCV stepper motor allows 125 possible valve opening positions.

Solenoids
Like stepper motors, solenoids are digital actuators. One terminal is attached to battery voltage while
the other is attached to the computer which opens and closes the ground circuit as needed. When
energized, the solenoid may extend a plunger or armature to control functions such as vacuum flow
to various emission-related systems or fuel injection. Most actuators are solenoids.
Solenoids are controlled two ways: pulse width or duty cycle. Pulse width control is used when the
frequency is not consistent. An example of pulse width is a fuel injector which is turned on for a
determined length of time and then shut off. Duty cycle control is used when the frequency does
remain constant. A duty cycle solenoid in ABS is designed to be on and off for a specific time
according to a selected ratio-on for 20% of the time and off the other 80%.
Idle speed control valves can be constructed
with a solenoid instead of a stepper motor. In
this case, the function is the same: the ECU
sends a signal to the ISCV to control the intake
air.
Solenoid valves are also used in electronically
controlled transmissions. Shifting is controlled
by the solenoid as it opens or closes a
hydraulic passage to control oil flow to the
shift valves.
The major actuators in a computer-controlled engine include the following components:
 Evaporative Emission (EVAP) Canister Purge Valve: This valve is controlled by a solenoid.
The valve controls when stored fuel vapors in the canister are drawn into the engine and burned.
The computer only activates this solenoid valve when the engine is warm and above idle speed.
 EGR Flow Solenoids: EGR flow may be controlled by electronically controlled vacuum
solenoids. The solenoid valves are supply manifold vacuum to the EGR valve when EGR is
required or may vent vacuum when EGR is not required.
 Fuel Injectors: These solenoid valves deliver the fuel spray in fuel-injected systems.
 Idle Speed Controls: These actuators are small electric motors. On carbureted engines, this idle
speed motor is mounted on the throttle linkage. On fuel-injected systems a stepper motor may be
used to control the amount of air bypassing the throttle plate.
 Ignition Module: This is actually an electronic switching device triggered by a signal from the
control computer. The ignition module may be a separate unit or may be part of the ECM.
 Motors: Using electrical relays, the computer is used to trigger the operation of electric motors,
such as the fuel pump.
Electronic Throttle Control: the acceleration on some late model vehicles works on the “drive-by-
wire” principle, which is typically called electronic throttle control (ETC). ETC interprets gas
pedal movement by the driver and allows for precise throttle control, which helps to improve fuel
economy and performance while reducing emissions.
Instead of a throttle cable and mechanical
linkage to the throttle body, the connection is
made through wires. Although these systems
are electronically controlled and operated,
some still have a mechanical backup system or
resort to partial throttle if something goes
wrong with the electronic system. One or two
position sensors are attached to the accelerator
pedal assembly, sending position and rate of
change information to the ECM. Figure: Electronic throttle control assembly
The pedal’s sensor sends a varying voltage signal to the ECM, which controls an electric motor
connected to the throttle plates. Electronic throttles are easily adaptable to support cruise control and
traction control systems. With electronic control, the throttle can be closed slightly to reduce engine
output during a shift, providing smoother gear changes.
6.3 Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) System
Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) System are computer controlled and designed to provide the correct
air-fuel ratio for all engine loads, speeds, and temperature conditions. The computer monitors the
operating conditions and attempts to provide the engine with the ideal air-fuel ratio. The ideal fuel
ratio is often called the stoichiometric ratio. A stoichiometric mixture is one that has the air-to-fuel
ratio necessary for complete combustion of the fuel. This means all of the fuel and the oxygen in the
air are completely consumed during combustion. Different fuels have a different stoichiometric ratio
but a stoichiometric mixture for gasoline is 14.7:1.
EFI systems is an electronically controlled system used to provide an atomized fuel to the incoming
air during the intake stoke of SI engines. This ensures accurate control of air-fuel mixture and hence
better performance with lower emission.
In olden vehicles carburetors are used in a fuel injection system that blends air and fuel for an internal
combustion engine by using the Bernoulli’s Principle. EFI replaced carburetors back as the preferred
method for supplying air and fuel to engines. The basic difference is that a carburetor uses intake
vacuum and a pressure drop in the venturi (the narrow part of the carburetor throat) to draw off fuel
from the carburetor fuel bowl into the engine whereas fuel injection uses pressure to spray fuel
directly into the engine.
In an EFI system, the computer must know the amount of air entering the engine so it can supply the
correct amount of fuel for that amount of air. In systems with a MAP sensor, the computer calculates
the amount of intake air based on MAP and rpm input signals. This type of EFI system is referred to
as a speed density system, because the computer calculates the air intake flow according to engine
speed and intake manifold vacuum. Because air density changes with air temperature, an intake air
temperature sensor is also used.
Today the most commonly used EFI system is the mass airflow (MAF) system. This system relies
on a MAF sensor that directly measures the amount of intake air. The most common type of MAF
sensor is the hot wire design. MAF systems are very responsive to changes in operating conditions
because they actually measure, rather than compute, airflow.
During closed loop, EFI systems rely on the input from a variety of sensors before adjusting the air-
fuel ratio. Based on all of the inputs, the ECM is able to determine the current operating conditions
of the engine such as: starting, idle, acceleration, cruise, deceleration, and operating temperature. The
ECM gathers the inputs and refers to the look-up tables in its memory to determine the ideal air-fuel
ratio for the current conditions. During open loop, fuel is delivered according to predetermined
parameters held in the ECM’s memory.
When conditions, such as starting or wide-open throttle, demand that the signals from the oxygen
sensor be ignored, the system operates in open loop. Pre-OBD-II systems may also go into the open-
loop mode while idling, or at any time that the oxygen sensor cools off enough to stop sending a good
signal, and at wide-open throttle.
 Figure: EFI system
6.3.1 Components of EFI
Fuel Injectors
Fuel injectors are electromechanical devices that meter and atomize fuel so it can be sprayed into
the intake manifold. Fuel injectors resemble a spark plug in size and shape. O-rings are used to seal
the injector at the intake manifold, throttle body, and/or fuel rail mounting positions. These O-rings
provide thermal insulation to prevent the formation of vapor bubbles and promote good hot start
characteristics. They also dampen potentially damaging vibration. When the injector is electrically
energized, a fine mist of fuel sprays from the injector tip. Most injectors consist of a solenoid, a
needle valve, and a nozzle. The solenoid is attached to the nozzle valve. The ECM controls the
injector by controlling its ground circuit through a driver circuit.
When the solenoid winding is energized, it
creates a magnetic field that draws the
armature back and pulls the needle valve from
its seat. Fuel then sprays out of the nozzle.
When the solenoid is de-energized, the
magnetic field collapses and a helical spring
forces the needle valve back on its seat,
shutting off fuel flow. Each fuel injector has a
two-wire connector. One wire supplies voltage
to the injector. This wire may connect directly
to the fuse panel or to the ECM, which, in turn,
connects to the fuse panel. The second wire is
a ground wire. This ground wire is connected
to the driver circuit inside the ECM. The
amount of fuel released by an injector depends
on fuel pressure and the length of time the
injector is energized.
Fuel pressure regulators are a vacuum operated spring-loaded diaphragm that enables a vehicle's
fuel delivery system to maintain a constant pressure. When the vehicle is at idle the regulator is open
allowing fuel to bypass the delivery system and go back into the tank. Fuel pressure is mainly
controlled by a pressure regulator, and the injector’s pulse width is controlled by the ECM.
Idle Speed Control
Idle speed control is a function of the ECM. Based on operating conditions and inputs from various
sensors, the ECM regulates the idle speed. In throttle body and port EFI systems, engine idle speed
is controlled by bypassing a certain amount of airflow past the throttle valve in the throttle body
housing. Two types of air by-pass systems are used: auxiliary air valves and idle air control (IAC)
valves. IAC valve systems are more common. Most TBI units are fitted with an idle speed motor.
The IAC system is a stepper motor or actuator that positions the IAC valve in the air by-pass channel
around the throttle valve. The IAC valve is part of the throttle body casting. The ECM calculates the
amount of air needed for smooth idling based on input data, such as coolant temperature, engine load,
engine speed, and battery voltage.
If engine speed is lower than desired, the ECM activates the motor to retract the IAC valve. This
opens the channel and diverts more air around the throttle valve. If engine speed is higher than
desired, the valve is extended and the by-pass channel is made smaller. Air supply to the engine is
reduced and engine speed falls.
Some engines are equipped with an auxiliary air valve to aid in the control of idle speed. Unlike the
IAC valve, the auxiliary air valve is not controlled by the ECM. Like the IAC system, however, the
auxiliary air valve provides additional air during cold engine idling.

Inputs
The ability of the fuel injection system to control the air-fuel ratio depends on its ability to properly
time the injector pulses with the compression stroke of each cylinder and its ability to vary the injector
“on” time, according to changing engine demands. Both tasks require the use of sensors that monitor
the operating conditions of the engine. The ECM receives these signals from the CAN bus and inputs
sent directly to the computer.
The major sensors in EFI engine include the following:
MAF Sensor: The mass airflow (MAF) sensor converts air flowing past a heated sensing element
into an electronic signal. The strength of this signal is determined by the energy needed to keep the
element at a constant temperature above the incoming ambient air temperature. As the volume and
density (mass) of airflow across the heated element change, the temperature of the element is affected
and the current flow to the element is adjusted to maintain the desired temperature. The varying
current parallels the particular characteristics of the incoming air (hot, dry, cold, humid, high/low
pressure). The ECM monitors the changes in current to determine air mass and to calculate fuel
requirements.
MAP Sensor: The manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor measures changes in the intake
manifold pressure that result from changes in engine load and speed. At closed throttle, the engine
produces a low MAP value. A wide-open throttle produces a high value. MAP output is the opposite
of what is measured on a vacuum gauge. The use of this sensor also allows the control computer to
adjust automatically for different altitudes. The MAP signal may also be used to inform the ECM
when the EGR valve is open during the EGR monitor test.
Oxygen Sensors (O2S): The signals from the exhaust gas oxygen sensor (O2S) are used to monitor
the air-fuel mixture. When the sensor‘s signal indicates a lean mixture, the computer enriches the air-
fuel mixture to the engine. When the sensor reading is rich, the computer leans the air-fuel mixture.
Because an O2S must be hot to operate properly, late model engines use heated oxygen sensors
(HO2S). These sensors have an internal heating element that allows the sensor to reach operating
temperature quickly and to maintain its temperature during periods of idling or low engine load.
OBD-II systems have two or more O2S in each exhaust system, one before the catalytic converter
(upstream) and one after it (downstream). The signals from the upstream sensor readings are used to
monitor the air-fuel ratio and the downstream sensors are used to monitor the effectiveness of the
catalytic converter. Many engines are fitted with air-fuel ratio sensors in the upstream position. These
sensors can react to very minor changes in the air-fuel ratio. This allows the ECM to have precise
control of the fuel injection system.
IAT Sensor: Cold air is denser than warm air. Cold, dense air can burn more fuel than the same
volume of warm air because it contains more oxygen. The intake air temperature (IAT) sensor
measures air temperature and sends an electronic signal to the ECM. The computer uses this input
along with the air volume input in determining the amount of oxygen entering the engine.
ECT Sensor: The engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor signals the ECM when the engine needs
cold enrichment, as it does during warmup. This adds to the base pulse width but decreases to zero
as the engine warms up. The ECM may also order a richer mixture when the engine is overheating.
A rich mixture burns cooler.
TP Sensor: The throttle position (TP) sensor allows the ECM to monitor throttle position. The signals
from this sensor are used to clarify load and operating conditions. This potentiometer reacts directly
to the movement of the throttle plate. A sudden increase in TP voltage tells the ECM to momentarily
enrich the mixture to prevent hesitation and stumbling during acceleration.
CKP Sensor: The crankshaft position (CKP) sensor is used to monitor engine speed. This signal
advises the PCM to adjust the pulse width of the injectors for engine speed. This input is the most
important input in the fuel management system. It is used to synchronize the injectors with events in
the cylinders. The signals from the CKP are often used with the signals from the CMP to determine
which cylinders are on the compression stroke.
CMP Sensor: The camshaft position (CMP) sensor is used to synchronize the firing of the injectors
with the individual cylinders in the engine. By using the signals from the CMP, the ECM can
determine that piston number 1 is on the compression stroke. This is used for fuel injection timing.
Additional Input Information Sensors Additional sensors are also used to provide the following
information on engine conditions: Air conditioner operation, Gearshift lever position, Battery
voltage, EGR valve position.
6.3.2 Operation of EFI
All fuel injection systems operate in response to inputs. However, the ECM’s programming allows
it to define the conditions and establish a summary of those conditions. The ECM then controls the
delivery of fuel according to that mode of operation. Different EFI systems have different operational
modes, but most have starting, run, clear flood, acceleration, and deceleration.
Starting Mode: When the ignition switch is initially moved to the start position, the ECM turns on
the fuel pump for about 2 seconds. When the ECM receives a good signal from the CKP sensor, it
energizes the fuel pump to allow for starting. If a CKP signal is not present, the fuel pump is shut off.
With a CKP signal, the ECM controls injector timing and bases the pulse width of the injectors
entirely on the engine’s coolant temperature and load. Once the engine is cranking, the ECM sets the
injectors’ pulse width according to inputs from the MAF, IAT, ECT, and TP sensors. In some cases,
as the engine is cranking, the injectors may prime the cylinders with a spray of fuel to help get the
engine started. The system stays in starting mode until the engine is rotating at a predetermined speed.
Run Mode: Once the engine has started and is running above a predetermined speed, the system will
operate in open loop. In open loop, the ECM sets injector pulse width according to MAF, IAT, ECT,
and TP sensor signals. The system stays in open loop until the ECM receives good signals from the
O2S and a predetermined engine temperature has been reached. Once these conditions have been met,
the system moves into closed loop. In closed loop, the ECM adjusts the pulse width according to
inputs from a variety of sensors, but primarily the O2S.
Clear Flood Mode: At times the engine will not start because it has received too much fuel; this is
called flooding. When an engine floods, the excess fuel must be pumped out of the cylinders. This is
done by fully depressing the accelerator pedal and cranking the engine. The clear flood mode is not
an automatic process; it is initiated by depressing and holding the accelerator pedal down. When the
ECM detects a wide-open throttle, it will go into the acceleration enrichment mode for 3 seconds. If
the throttle is held open and the engine’s speed is below a predetermined rpm, the system will return
to the start mode. In some cases, the ECM will completely turn off the injectors if engine cranking
continues for a long period.
Acceleration Mode: Based on signals from the TP and MAF sensors, the ECM can tell when the
vehicle is being accelerated. To compensate for the sudden rush of intake air as the throttle is opened,
the ECM increases the injectors’ pulse width. The pulse width change is calculated by the ECM
according to inputs from the CKP, MAP, ECT, MAF, and TP sensors. Once the ECM determines
that the vehicle is no longer accelerating, the EFI system is returned to the run mode.
Deceleration Mode: Inputs from the MAF and TP sensors are also used by the ECM to detect
deceleration. During deceleration, the ECM reduces injector pulse width. Some systems will totally
shut off the fuel when the vehicle is rapidly decelerating. Some vehicles will totally shut down the
fuel system for a brief period during deceleration.
6.3.3 Types of EFI System
a. Indirect injection (Jetronic)
Throttle Body Injection (TBI): For many auto manufacturers, TBI served as a stepping stone from
carburetors to more advanced fuel injection systems. TBI system also called Single-point injection
(SPI). The throttle body unit is mounted directly to the intake manifold. The injector(s) spray fuel
down into a throttle body chamber leading to the intake manifold. The intake manifold feeds the air-
fuel mixture to all cylinders. Four-cylinder engines have a single throttle body assembly with one
injector and throttle plate, whereas V6 and V8 engines are usually equipped with dual injectors and
two throttle plates on a common throttle shaft.
The throttle body assembly contains a pressure regulator, injector or injectors, TP sensor, idle speed
control motor, and a throttle shaft and linkage assembly. The throttle body casting has ports that can
be located above, below, or at the throttle plate depending on the design. These ports provide vacuum
signals for the MAP sensor and for emission control devices, such as the EGR valve, Evaporative
Emission Control System (EVAP), and so on.
Throttle body systems are not as efficient as port injection systems. Fuel is not distributed equally to
all cylinders, the air and fuel from the TBI unit pass through the intake manifold, and the length and
shape of the manifold’s runners affect distribution. There is also a potential problem of fuel
condensing and forming puddles in the manifold when the manifold is cold.
Port Fuel Injection (PFI): PFI systems use at least one injector at each cylinder. They are mounted
in the intake manifold near the cylinder head where they can inject a fine, atomized fuel mist as close
as possible to the intake valve. Delivering the fuel mist right outside the combustion chamber allows
the fuel to break down and vaporize a little more before it enters the cylinder. Through the years,
many different PFI systems have been used and although they have things in common, they do not
fire the injectors in the same way. PFI systems can be divided into two basic categories: multiport
injection (MPI) systems and sequential fuel injection (SFI) systems; each is defined by injector
control. Due to OBD-II regulations, MPI systems are no longer used; rather, all engines are now
fitted with SFI systems.
In MPI systems, the injectors were grouped together and the injectors in each group fired at the same
time. Some MPI systems fired all of the injectors simultaneously.
Sequential Fuel Injection systems control each injector separately so that it injects just before the
intake valve opens. This means that the mixture is never static in the intake manifold and adjustments
to the mixture can be made instantaneously between the injection of one injector and the next.
Sequential injection is the most accurate and desirable method of regulating port injection.
 Single-Point Injection

Multi-Point Injection
b. Gasoline Direct-Injection Systems (Motronic)
Direct injection has been around for many years on diesel engines. Until recently, this type of
injection system has been seldom used with gasoline. With direct injection, highly pressurized fuel
is sprayed directly into the cylinders. In GDI system the fuel is highly pressurized when it is sprayed
into the cylinders. Under this pressure, the fuel arrives as very fine droplets. To prevent the heat from
igniting the fuel in the injector (mostly solenoid injectors), the injectors are designed to completely
seal after the fuel is sprayed. The ECM controls the pulse width and timing of each injector and
allows the system to operate in very distinctly different modes. Fuel is injected before or after the
intake valve is closed, depending on the operational mode. The pulse width also changes with the
operational mode, and adjustments are made according to inputs from the MAF and IAT sensors.
The injectors can pulse twice during the transition from the compression stroke to combustion. The
two pulses promote complete combustion when the ECM senses that operating conditions may
prevent a complete burning of the fuel.

Operation Gasoline Direct-Injection Systems

Most direct-injection systems can operate in three distinct modes: lean burn, stoichiometric, and full
power. Each of these modes has different air-fuel ratios, injection timing, and pump pressures. The
ECM chooses the mode based on operating conditions.
Lean Burn Mode: Direct-injected engines are able to run at very lean mixtures, with air-fuel ratios
as high as 60:1. This benefit is why GDI engines are capable of drastically reducing fuel consumption.
The engines run in the lean mode when the vehicle is cruising with a very light load. In addition to a
reduction in fuel consumption, exhaust emissions are also lowered. The lean mixtures are possible
because the system allows for a stratified charge. The placement of the injector tip in the combustion
chamber is an important feature of a direct-injection system, especially when it is operating in the
lean mode. A small amount of fuel is sprayed near the spark plug when the piston has nearly
completed its compression stroke but before ignition occurs. There is enough fuel around the spark
plug to cause combustion. This local area of combustion is the stratified charge. The area surrounding
that small area has little or no fuel and is mostly air or recirculated exhaust gas. The air surrounding
the stratified charge forms an insulating cushion to keep fuel away from the cylinder walls.
Stoichiometric Mode: During medium-load operation, the system operates in the stoichiometric
mode. The air-fuel ratio is near stoichiometric and the fuel is injected during the intake stroke.
Full-Power Mode: The full-power mode is used during heavy loads and hard acceleration. The air-
fuel mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric and the fuel is again injected during the intake
stroke.
Advantages of GDI
When compared to other injection systems, direct injection has the following advantages:
 Increases fuel efficiency
 Provides higher power output
 Increases the engine’s volumetric efficiency
 Lowers engine thermal losses
 Decreases emissions (NOx may increase if combustion temperatures go too high.)
 Allows the engine to have high compression without the need to use high-octane fuel
 Reduces most of the turbo lag when used with a turbocharger
 Figure: Combined Ignition and Injection System (ME-Motronic)
The primary difference between Jetronic and Motronic gasoline injection system is ECU control of
ignition timing. L-Jet timing is independent of computer control, and the ECU only oversees injector
operation. Motronic controls both fuel and spark.
Advantages of EFI
 Accurate AF Ratio (with uniform distribution) throughout all engine operating conditions.
 Excellent fuel Economy with Improved Emissions Control.
 Superior throttle response (with rapid throttle movements) and power.
 Improved cold engine start ability and operation.
Light and Medium-Duty Diesel Fuel Injection
Most late-model diesel injection systems are very similar to GDI systems. Actually, it is more
accurate to say that the GDI systems are very similar to today’s light- and medium-duty diesel
injection systems. Nearly all of today’s diesel systems have a common rail injection system in which
the injectors are totally directly controlled by the ECM. However, some diesel engines use a
mechanical-type system and only the fuel pressure and emission controls are regulated by the ECM.
To meet OBD standards, diesel control systems use many of the same inputs as a gasoline engine
(such as the MAP, IAT, MAF, TP, CKP, and CMP sensors).