Module 1:

INTRODUCTION: BASIC CONCEPT OF

HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING,
CONCEPT OF DESIGN, PLANNING
AND LAYOUT OF H.V.
LABORATORIES
Contents

Module 1: ................................................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION: BASIC CONCEPT OF HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING, CONCEPT OF DESIGN, PLANNING
AND LAYOUT OF H.V. LABORATORIES ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY ...................................................... 2
1.1.1 VOLTAGE STRESSES .......................................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 TESTING VOLTAGES.......................................................................................................... 5
1.2 DESIGN, PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES ................................... 6
1.2.1 TEST FACILITIES PROVIDED IN HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES ....................................... 6
1.2.2 ACTIVITIES AND STUDIES IN HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES .......................................... 7
1.2.3 HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING EQUIPMENT ............................................................................. 8
1.2.4 SIZE AND DIMENSIONS OF THE EQUIPMENT IN HIGH VOLTAGE LABORATORIES ........... 8
1.2.5 LAYOUT OF HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES .................................................................... 9
1.2.6 GROUNDING OF IMPULSE TESTING LABORATORIES ..................................................... 10
1.2.7 ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING AND EARTH RETURN IN HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES
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1.1 GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY

• First public power station was put into service in 1882 in London (Holborn).
• The early systems produced direct current at low-voltage, but their service were limited to
highly localized areas and were used mainly for electric lighting.
• By 1890 the art in the development of an A.C. generator and transformer had been perfected
to the point when A.C. supply was becoming common, displacing the earlier D.C. system.
The first major A.C. power station was commissioned in 1890 at Deptford, supplying power
to central London over a distance of 28 miles at 10,000 V.
From the earliest ‘electricity’ days it was realized that to make full use of economic generation the
transmission network must be tailored to production with increased interconnection for pooling of
generation in an integrated system. In addition, the potential development of renewable power and the
need to carry that power over long distances to the centres of consumption were recognized.

Power transfer for large systems, whether in the context of interconnection of large systems or bulk
transfers, led engineers invariably to think in terms of high system voltages.

The electric power (P) transmitted on an overhead A.C. line increases approximately with the surge
impedance loading or the square of the system’s operating voltage. Thus, for a transmission line of
surge impedance 𝑍𝐿 (≅ 250Ω) at an operating voltage V, the power transfer capability is
approximately
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑍𝐿
which for an overhead A.C. system leads to the following results:

V (kV) 400 700 1000 1200 1500

P (MW) 640 2000 4000 5800 9000

Note - Surge impedance loading is defined as the power load in which the total reactive power of the
lines becomes zero. The reactive power generated by the shunt capacitance is consumed by the series
inductance of the line.
The rapidly increasing transmission voltage level in recent decades is a result of the growing demand
for electrical energy, coupled with the development of large renewable power stations at sites far
remote from centres of industrial activity and the need to transmit the energy over long distances
to the centres.
However, environmental concerns have imposed limitations on system expansion resulting in the need
to better utilize existing transmission systems. This has led to the development of Flexible A.C.
Transmission Systems (FACTS) which are based on newly developing high-power electronic devices
such as GTOs and IGBTs. Examples of FACTS systems include Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitors and STATCOMS. The FACTS devices improve the utilization of a transmission system by
increasing power transfer capability.

Although the majority of the world’s electric transmission is carried on A.C. systems, High-Voltage
Direct Current (HVDC) transmission by overhead lines, submarine cables, and back-to-back
installations provides an attractive alternative for bulk power transfer. Figure 1 depicts a typical
HVDC system, and Table 1.1 mentions the list of HVDC Projects in India. HVDC permits a higher
power density on a given right-of-way as compared to A.C. transmission and thus helps the electric
utilities in meeting the environmental requirements imposed on the transmission of electric power.
HVDC also provides an attractive technical and economic solution for interconnecting asynchronous

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A.C. systems and for bulk power transfer requiring long cables. Figure 2 shows a comparison of costs
of AC and DC transmission system.

Figure 1. High Voltage Direct Current HVDC Transmission

1.1.1 VOLTAGE STRESSES

Normal operating voltage does not severely stress the power system’s insulation and only in special
circumstances, for example under pollution conditions, may operating voltages cause problems to
external insulation. Nevertheless, the operating voltage determines the dimensions of the insulation
which forms part of the generation, transmission and distribution equipment. The voltage stresses on
power systems arise from various overvoltages.

The voltage stresses on power systems arise from various overvoltages. These may be of external or
internal origin. External overvoltages are associated with lightning discharges and are not dependent
on the voltage of the system. As a result, the importance of stresses produced by lightning decreases
as the operating voltage increases. Internal overvoltages are generated by changes in the operating
conditions of the system such as switching operations, a fault on the system or fluctuations in the load
or generations.

In designing the system’s insulation, the two areas of specific importance

are:
I. Determination of the voltage stresses which the insulation must withstand,

II. Determination of the response of the insulation when subjected to these voltage stresses.

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 Table 1.1 List of HVDC Projects in India

Figure 2. Comparison of costs of AC and DC transmission

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1.1.2 TESTING VOLTAGES

Power systems equipment must withstand not only the rated voltage (𝑉𝑚 ), which corresponds to the
highest voltage of a particular system, but also overvoltages. Accordingly, it is necessary to test H.V.
equipment during its development stage and prior to commissioning.

The magnitude and type of test voltage varies with the rated voltage of a particular apparatus. The
standard methods of measurement of high-voltage and the basic techniques for application to all types
of apparatus for alternating voltages, direct voltages, switching impulse voltages and lightning
impulse voltages are laid down in the relevant national and international standards.

1.1.2.1 TESTING WITH POWER FREQUENCY VOLTAGES

To assess the ability of the apparatus’s insulation withstand under the system’s power frequency
voltage the apparatus is subjected to the 1-minute test under 50 Hz or 60 Hz depending upon the
country. The test voltage is set at a level higher than the expected working voltage in order to be able
to simulate the stresses likely to be encountered over the years of service. For indoor installations the
equipment tests are carried out under dry conditions only. For outdoor equipment tests may be
required under conditions of standard rain as prescribed in the appropriate standards.

1.1.2.2 TESTING WITH LIGHTNING IMPULSE VOLTAGES

Lightning strokes terminating on transmission lines will induce steep rising voltages in the line and set
up travelling waves along the line and may damage the system’s insulation. The magnitude of these
overvoltages may reach several thousand kilovolts, depending upon the insulation. Exhaustive
measurements and long experience have shown that lightning overvoltages are characterized by short
front duration, ranging from a fraction of a microsecond. to several tens of microseconds and then
slowly decreasing to zero. The standard impulse voltage has been accepted as an aperiodic impulse
that reaches its peak value in 1.2 μsec and then decreases slowly (in about 50 μsec) to half its peak
value.

In addition to testing equipment, impulse voltages are extensively used in research laboratories in the
fundamental studies of electrical discharge mechanisms, notably when the time to breakdown is of
interest.

1.1.2.3 TESTING WITH SWITCHING IMPULSES

Transient overvoltages accompanying sudden changes in the state of power systems, e.g. switching
operations or faults, are known as switching impulse voltages. It has become generally recognized
that switching impulse voltages are usually the dominant factor affecting the design of insulation in
h.v. power systems for rated voltages of about 300 kV and above. Accordingly, the various
international standards recommend that equipment designed for voltages above 300 kV be tested for
switching impulses. Although the waveshape of switching overvoltages occurring in the system may
vary widely, experience has shown that for flashover distances in atmospheric air of practical interest
the lowest withstand values are obtained with surges with front
times between 100 and 300 μsec. Hence, the recommended switching surge voltage has been
designated to have a front time of about 250 μs and half value time of 2500 μs.

1.1.2.4 D.C. VOLTAGES

In the past D.C. voltages have been chiefly used for purely scientific research work. Industrial
applications were mainly limited to testing cables with relatively large capacitance, which take a very
large current when tested with A.C. voltages, and in testing insulations in which internal discharges

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may lead to degradation of the insulation under testing conditions. In recent years, with the rapidly
growing interest in HVDC transmission, an increasing number of industrial laboratories are being
equipped with sources for producing D.C. high voltages. Because of the diversity in the application of
D.C. high voltages, ranging from basic physics experiments to industrial applications, the
requirements on the output voltage will vary accordingly.

1.1.2.5 TESTING WITH VERY LOW-FREQUENCY VOLTAGE

In the earlier years when electric power distribution systems used mainly paper-insulated lead covered
cables (PILC) on-site testing specifications called for tests under D.C. voltages. Typically the tests
were carried out at 4–4.5V0. The tests helped to isolate defective cables without further damaging
good cable insulation. With the widespread use of extruded insulation cables of higher dielectric
strength, the test voltage levels were increased to 5–8V0. In the 1970s premature failures of extruded
dielectric cables factory tested under D.C. voltage at specified levels were noted. Hence on-site testing
of cables under very low frequency (VLF) of ¾0.1Hz has been adopted.

1.2 DESIGN, PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF HIGH-VOLTAGE

LABORATORIES

Industrial and economic development in the present world demands the use of more and more
electrical energy which has to be transported over long distances in large quantities. Transportation of
large amounts of power needs extra high-voltage transmission lines. Elsewhere in the world,
transmission lines of 760 kV have come into operation, and transmission lines of ratings of 1200 kV
or more are coming into operation in the USA and USSR. Extensive studies are being made in
different countries on the possible use of complex extra high-voltage dc systems of ±500 kV and
above.
This very fast development of power systems would be followed by system studies on equipment and
service conditions which they have to fulfil. These conditions will also determine the values for test
voltages of ac power frequency, impulse, or dc, under specific conditions.
High-voltage laboratories are an essential requirement for making acceptance tests for the equipment
that go into operation in the extra high-voltage transmission systems. Usually, high-voltage
laboratories involve tremendous cost. Hence, planning and layout have to be carefully done so that
with the testing equipment chosen, the investment is not high and the maximum utility of the
laboratory is made.

1.2.1 TEST FACILITIES PROVIDED IN HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES

A high voltage laboratory is expected to carry out withstand and/or flashover tests at high- voltages on
the following transmission system equipment:
(i) Transformers
(ii) Lightning arresters
(iii) Isolators and circuit breakers
(iv) Different types of insulators
(v) Cables
(vi) Capacitors
(vii) Other equipment like reactors, etc.

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Different tests conducted on the above equipment are:
(i) Power frequency withstand tests — wet and dry
(ii) Impulse tests
(iii) dc withstand tests
(iv) Switching surge tests
(v) Tests under polluted atmospheric conditions
(vi) Partial discharge and RTV measurements
(vii) High current tests.
In addition to the above facilities, the laboratories should also have facilities for conducting research
on dielectric properties of insulation and insulating materials.

1.2.2 ACTIVITIES AND STUDIES IN HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES

High-voltage laboratories, in addition to conducting tests on equipment, are used for research and
development work on the equipment. This includes determination of the safety factor for dielectrics
and reliability studies under different atmospheric conditions such as rain, fog, industrial pollution,
etc., at voltage higher than the test voltage required.
Research activities usually include the following:
(i) breakdown phenomenon in insulating media such as gases, liquids, solids, or composite
systems,
(ii) withstand voltage on long gaps, surface flashover studies on equipment with special
reference to the equipment and materials used in power systems,
(iii) electrical interference studies due to discharges from equipment operating at high
voltages,
(iv) to design, development and meet the testing needs of transmission lines having ac system
voltages of 765 kV and 1100 kV, and also the needs of equipment testing at this facility
The following principal research areas can be identified:
(i) Effect of corona and field on the performance of transmission lines
(ii) Performance of air insulation under different voltage stresses using very long gaps
(iii) Performance of line insulators under different weather conditions (temperature, humidity,
etc.) and varying pollution conditions

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1.2.3 HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING EQUIPMENT

(i) DC Testing Equipment: High voltage D.C. tests using cascaded rectifiers.
(ii) Power Frequency Testing Equipment
(iii) impulse current generators for testing lightning arresters,
(iv) test facilities for measuring RIV and partial discharges,
(v) sphere gaps for measurement and calibration purposes, and
(vi) High-voltage Schering-bridge for dielectric testing.
Where sphere gaps are used, it is important to bestow thought regarding the proper size and space
requirements as per IS: 1876-1961 and IEC 600060 (1989).

1.2.4 SIZE AND DIMENSIONS OF THE EQUIPMENT IN HIGH VOLTAGE

LABORATORIES

High-voltage laboratories may be either (a) indoor type, or (b) outdoor type. The indoor type has the
advantage of protection of testing equipment against variable weather conditions, simplicity in design
and control of the test equipment, and provision of observation facilities during testing. But outdoor
laboratories have the advantage of less cost due to the absence of building cost and the planned
facility layout cost. But outdoor test areas have limitations such as (i) absence of lifting and
supporting facilities, (ii) climatic conditions which may restrict or impede testing, (iii) reproducibility
of results not being guaranteed due to uncontrolled atmospheric conditions, and (iv) artificial and wet
test studies which are difficult due to wind variation, etc.

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When high-voltage laboratories are planned as indoor laboratories, the following figures fix the
dimensions of the laboratories:
(i) Size of the test equipment for ac, dc, or impulse generators.
(ii) Distances or clearances between the test object and ground during test conditions and also
between all the high voltage terminals and earthed or grounded surroundings such as
walls, roofs of buildings, and other test equipment not energized.
Regarding clearances, that is, the minimum distance between the high-voltage surfaces and the ground
points; they are of utmost importance in high-voltage testing. The approximate working clearances
recommended are as follows:

• ac power frequency voltages: 200 kV (rms)/m

• dc voltages: 275 kV/m
• Impulse voltages: 500 kV/m
• Switching surges : 𝑑 = (2𝑉)2 , (where, d in meters, V in MV)
The above clearance is safe upto: AC and DC: 1.5 MV, Impulse and switching surges: 2.5 MV.
For higher voltages, clearances must be calculated considering withstand voltages for rod-plane
configuration as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Withstand voltage of rod-plane configuration

1.2.5 LAYOUT OF HIGH-VOLTAGE LABORATORIES

The layout of an hv laboratory is an important aspect for providing an efficient testing facility.
Laboratory arrangements differ very much from a single equipment to multi dc, ac, and impulse

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arrangements in different testing programmes. Each laboratory has to be designed individually
considering the type of equipment to be tested, the available space, other accessories needed for the
tests, the storage space required, etc. Earthing, control gear, and the safety precautions require most
careful consideration.
To minimize the floor loading problems and to simplify earthing arrangement, a ground level location
is preferred. The floor should withstand the loading imposed by the equipment and test objects.
Arrangements should be made to ensure that the laboratory is free from dust, draught, and excessive
humidity. Laboratory windows may require blackout arrangement for visual corona tests, etc. The
control room should be located in such a way as to include good overall view of the laboratory and
test area. The main access door to the test area must accommodate the test equipment and the test
object and have adequate interlocking arrangements and warning systems to ensure safety to the
personnel.
High-voltage test facilities and large-size high-voltage laboratories are available at only a few places
in the country and abroad as each of them costs several millions of dollars. A fully screened high-
voltage laboratory with all test and research facilities will cost US $10-50 million.

1.2.6 GROUNDING OF IMPULSE TESTING LABORATORIES

An earth or ground system means an established stable reference potential normally taken to be zero.
There are three types of grounds:
(i) ideal ground,
(ii) single point ground
(iii) bus ground
Of all these, the best ground is the ideal ground which cannot be realized in practice. The next
preferred ground is the single point ground, and the bus ground is least satisfactory. Ideal ground can
be approximated by an equipotential plane realized by a finite conducting material. The laboratory is
covered by a sheet of copper metal welded into a single unit. But this is very costly and is used rarely.
A single point ground is commonly used. In this an earthing grid is installed within the laboratory
floor, the connection from the grid is given by a large sized copper conductor to a point identified as a
common ground point. The ground connections of various equipment and other components of the
high-voltage test circuit are made to the common ground. High-voltage impulse tests give rise to high
currents of several kA, and the rate at which the currents may change ranges between 10 7 to 109 A/s.
If proper care is not taken, flashover or damage to control gear and risk of life to persons can occur. In
order to avoid these difficulties, copper strips are used instead of round conductors to minimize the
inductance in the ground circuit. Secondly, metal grid embedded in a concrete floor gives rise to less
resistance and inductance in the ground circuit. The ground is effective only when large size strips are
used with close spacing.

The ground system should ensure the following conditions:

(i) Imperfections of grounding system are to be avoided, as they cause excessive voltage
difference between points and cause flashovers, damage, or danger to human life,
(ii) the imperfections will cause excessive loop currents along the sheaths of measuring
cables, which will introduce errors in measurements,
(iii) the grounding system should be such that the voltage drop along the ground system, the
voltage at a loop, and the circulating currents in the loops are avoided or minimized,
(iv) metal conduits should be used for the measuring and control cables to avoid neutral
inductance effect between the ground grid and the cables.

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A typical good earthing system consists of a copper network with meshes of 1 m width laid down
below the ground level around the impulse test area and well connected. This network is extended
over the entire area comprising all equipment such as testing transformers, charging h.v. rectifier set,
test bay, etc. The grid should be electrically connected to all the metallic frames and reinforcing iron
in the concrete walls and pillars of the building at their bottom points. Impulse test area must be
provided with a spread, stretched, or expanded copper grid on the floor of thickness of about 2 mm
with ground rods driven into the earth to a depth equal to the height of the impulse generator. The rods
are welded to the inside copper grid as well as surface copper grid. Earth connection facility is to be
provided for every 16 sq.m area so that the shortest lead can be used from any position inside the
laboratory.

In addition, the high frequency energy produced during impulse tests should not cause any trouble
around the test area. If this is to be met the entire laboratory should be built into a Faraday cage.

1.2.7 ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING AND EARTH RETURN IN HIGH-

VOLTAGE LABORATORIES

A high-voltage laboratory, small, medium or large in size should have some type of screening against
electrostatic and electromagnetic field interference. The screening is essential if partial discharge
measurements are to be made in the laboratory.
The sources of disturbance inside the laboratories are
(i) switching transients due to switching-on or switching-off of loads like lifts or cranes,
transformers, etc.,
(ii) rectifier circuits, and
(iii) shielded cables acting as antennas for outside signals.

Care should be taken to see that the above are avoided. The best screening is obtained if the roof,
the walls and the flooring area are screened with an expanded metal wire mesh and joined
together.
A potential difference could be created momentarily during the transient period between the base
of impulse voltage generator and that of the base of the measuring voltage divider and test object.
These differences are carried on to the measuring device which will give erroneous results. These
voltage differences can be reduced by reducing the impedance of the ground side of the test
circuit. The most effective method for reducing the voltage differences is to have the return
conductor in the form of a metal sheet placed on the top of the floor.
The high-voltage laboratory must be earthed to
(i) protect the equipment against the lightning strokes, and
(ii) to protect the equipment from short circuits inside the laboratory from the power supply
source.
If not properly earthed, these will give rise to potentials which are different at different points in
the laboratory thus causing unnecessary danger to human life and damage to the equipment.

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