APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR

ENGINEERS
CHM 1072
Unit 1
Battery
Technology
Introduction:

• Batteries are essential for various devices.

• Clocks, watches, motor vehicles, and more rely on batteries.

Diverse Applications:

• Different applications require specific battery properties.

• Car batteries need high current for a short time.
• Pacemaker batteries must be small and steady.
• UPS systems require consistent backup.
• Hearing aid batteries must be tiny.
• Torpedo and submarine batteries must be stable and
rechargeable.

Global Industry:

• The battery industry has a significant global turnover.

1. Primary Batteries:
• Galvanic cells that produce electricity from sealed-in
chemicals.
• Cannot be recharged; once equilibrium is reached, they are
discarded.
• Examples: Dry cell, Lithium copper
sulfide battery

Requirements:
• Compact, lightweight, and made from readily available
materials.
• Economical and environmentally benign.
• High energy density and longer shelf life.
• Provide constant voltage and long discharge periods.
2. Secondary Batteries:
• Rechargeable cells that can be used through multiple
discharge and charge cycles.
• External electricity reverses the spontaneous cell reaction
during charging.
• Examples: Lead-acid batteries, Nickel-cadmium cell, Lithium-
ion battery,
Requirements:
• Long shelf-life in both charged and discharged states.
• Longer cycle life and design life.
• High power-to-weight ratio.
• Short recharge time.
• High voltage and energy density.
Batteries as Electrochemical Cells:
• Batteries store chemical energy and convert it to electrical energy.
• Electrochemical reactions release electrons and transport charged ions.
• Electrodes and electrolytes influence energy storage, operating voltage,
and battery performance.
• Each battery comprises one or more electrochemical cells.
• Cells have anodes and cathodes.
• Separators prevent internal short circuits, and current collectors transfer
electrons.
Electrodes (Anode and Cathode):
• Anode: Where electrons flow out (oxidation).
➢ Lower standard reduction potential (more negative).
➢ Desired characteristics: Low reduction/redox potential,
high specific capacity, reversibility, and good conductivity.
• Cathode: Where electrons flow in (reduction).
➢ Higher standard reduction potential (more positive).
➢ Desired characteristics: High reduction potential, high
specific capacity, reversibility, and stability.
• Cell potential (Ecell) = Ecathode - Eanode.
➢ Greater potential difference results in higher voltage.
Types of Electrolytes:
• Liquid, solid, polymer, or composite (hybrid) electrolytes.
• Selection depends on battery type.

Desirable Properties:
• High ionic conductivity.
• No electric conductivity.
• Nonreactivity with electrodes.
• Wide operating temperature range
Types of electrolytes
Traditional Liquid Electrolyte (desired properties)
• Low viscosity, high energy density.
• High charge/discharge rate.
• Operational temperature: -40°C to 60°C.
• Low flammability.

Polymeric Electrolytes:
• Solid or gel form.
• Solid: High flexibility, energy density, safety, and stability.
• Gel: High ionic conductivity, multifunctional, chemically stable.
 • Solid polymeric electrolytes have low ionic conductivities at
room temperature.
• Gel polymeric electrolytes have better conductivity but poor
mechanical strength.

Advantages of Solid Polymeric Electrolytes:

• No leakage.
• Non-flammable.
• Non-volatile.
• Thermal and mechanical stability.
• Easy fabrication.
• High achievable power density and cyclability.
Redox Reactions and Electron Transfer:
• Redox reactions involve the exchange of electrons.
• In an electrochemical cell, half-reactions occur at the cathode and
anode.
• Reduction (gain of electrons) occurs at the cathode, and oxidation
(loss of electrons) occurs at the anode.
• Each reaction has its own standard potential.
• Fig. 1 illustrates the basic mechanism of an electrochemical battery
cell during discharge and charge.
Fig 1: Generalized redox battery operation during (a)discharge and (b)charge
 Battery Performance matrix

1. Cell Potential:
• Voltage of a battery given by:
• Cell potential=(EC​−EA​)−∣ηA​−ηC∣−iRcell
Where Ec and EA are the electrode (reduction) potentials of cathode and
the anode respectively, ηA and ηC are the over-potentials at the anode and
the cathode respectively and iRcell (voltage drop) where the Rcell internal
resistance of electrolyte.

To maximize voltage:
o Increase difference in electrode potentials.
o Ensure fast electrode reactions to minimize overpotential.
o Minimize internal resistance.
o Design electrodes for easy depletion at anode and increase of active
mass at cathode.
2. Current:
• Measure of electron flow during discharge.
• It is the amount of charge flowing per unit time
• Expressed in amperes.
• High conductance electrolyte ensures uniform
current.
• Batteries provide direct current.
3. Capacity:
• Charge in ampere-hours (A h) obtained from the battery.
• Depends on battery size.
𝑚 ×𝑛 ×𝐹
• Determined by Faraday relation: 𝐶 =
𝑀
Where C is the capacity in A h, m is the mass of active material and M is
the molar mass,num
• Capacity measured by time (t) to reach minimum voltage (Ecellmin)
during fixed current discharge.
• Longer flat portion in discharge curve indicates better capacity.

Fig 5: Battery voltage during charging Fig 6: Battery voltage during discharging
4. Electricity Storage Density:
• Measures charge per unit mass stored in the battery.
• Includes mass of electrolyte, current collectors, terminals, and
other elements.
• Minimize mass of subsidiary elements for high storage density.
• Example: 7g of lithium vs. 65g of zinc for the same charge.
5. Energy Efficiency: Energy efficiency
= (Energy released on discharge/Energy required for charging )​×100%
• Depends on current efficiency, overpotentials, and internal
resistance.
• Aim for high energy efficiency.
6. Cycle Life:
• Number of charge-discharge cycles before failure (applicable to
secondary batteries).
• Regenerate active material during charging.
• Affected by corrosion, shedding, shorting, and morphology changes.
7. Shelf Life:
• Retains performance during storage under specified conditions.
• Self-discharge due to reactions or corrosion.
• Tolerance to temperature, vibration, and shock.
8.Energy Density:
• amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per
unit volume (volumetric energy density) or per unit mass(Wh/kg
or Wh/L).
• Continuous energy density above a threshold or very high
density for short periods.
9. Power Density:
• Ratio of power available to
battery mass (W/kg) or
volume (W/L).
• High power density is
crucial for applications that
require rapid energy
delivery over short periods
EMERGING BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES
Emerging battery technologies are constantly developing to fulfil the
increasing requirements of many industries, such as consumer electronics,
EVs, renewable energy storage, and grid stability.
Below are a few noteworthy developing battery technologies:
1. Solid-State Batteries
• Replace liquid/gel electrolyte with solid
• Higher energy density and safety
• Potential to revolutionize EVs and portable devices
Solid-State Batteries
2. Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
• Higher energy density than lithium-ion
• Uses abundant, affordable sulfur
• Challenges: conductivity and polysulfide dissolution
3. Lithium-Air Batteries
• Extremely high theoretical energy density
• Lithium metal anode, oxygen from air cathode
• Issues: cycle life and anode stability
Flow Batteries
• Liquid electrolytes in external tanks
• Scalable, flexible capacity
• Research on better energy density and cost
• Eg: Vanadium redox flow batteries
Metal-Air Batteries
• Metal anode, atmospheric oxygen cathode
• High theoretical energy densities, potentially low cost
• Reversibility, efficiency, and cycle life challenges
 Lead Acid Battery/Storage Battery
(Lead Accumulator or Car Battery or the acid battery)

Construction
• Lead grid electrodes maximize surface area
• Anode: spongy lead (Pb)
• Cathode: lead dioxide (PbO2)
• Electrolyte: sulfuric acid solution (H2SO4),
specific gravity ~1.25
• Separators: wood, rubber, or glass fiber
• Encasement: plastic or vulcanized rubber
• Wet cell: common electrolyte without liquid
junction
Discharging reactions
At the anode:
Pb (s) → Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s)
Pb(s)+ SO42-(aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2e-

At the cathode:
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e− → Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Pb2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → PbSO4(s)
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

Overall: Pb(s) + PbO2(s) +4H+(aq) + 2SO42−(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

Reactions during Charging:
cathode:
PbSO4(s) + 2e- → Pb(s)+ SO42-(aq)
anode:
PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4H +(aq) + 2e-
Net reaction: 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4
Overall Discharge – Charge Reactions

Recharging
• External power source reverses discharge reactions
• Lead sulfate (PbSO4) adheres to electrodes, facilitating
reversibility
• Specific gravity of H2SO4 indicates the battery’s charge level
Overcharging of Lead Acid Batteries
• Electrolysis of Water
2H2O (l) + electrical energy → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
• No gas release if lead ions present
• Hydrogen gas at cathode:
• 2H+(aq) + 2e-→ H2(g)
• Oxygen gas at anode:
• 2H2O(l) →O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-
• Consequences of Overcharging
• Acid level reduction, potential electrode damage
• Risk of explosion due to high-pressure build-up
• Older batteries require periodic ‘topping up’
• Maintenance-Free Batteries
• No gas-release vent, controlled gassing
• Pb-Ca alloy anode reduces water electrolysis
• Catalysts recombine gases into water, no maintenance needed
• Sealed design prevents leakage

• Applications
• Automotive Batteries: Starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) for
cars and trucks
• Industrial Batteries: Motive and standby power for heavy-duty
applications
• Consumer Batteries: Emergency lighting, security systems,
power tools, UPS
Advantages
• High Efficiency: Voltage efficiency ~80%
• Reversibility: Fast chemical reactions, high negative free energy
change
• Longevity: 300-1500 recharge cycles, up to 2000 for sealed
batteries
• Quick Recharging: Approximately 2-8 hours
• Low Self-Discharge: Maintains charge when not in use
• High Current Capability: 12 V car batteries can deliver over 10 A
Disadvantages
• Sulfation: Large PbSO4 crystals formation if left partially charged
• Weight: Low energy storage-to-weight ratio (~35 Wh/kg)
• Concentration Dependent: Cell potential drops as sulfuric acid
is consumed
• Temperature Sensitivity: Reduced efficiency at lower
temperatures
• Overcharging Risks: Potential electrode damage and explosion
• Toxicity: Environmental and health concerns with lead
• Corrosion: Lead grid corrosion at lead dioxide electrode
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery
As electronic products have come to feature more sophisticated functions,
more compact sizes and lighter weights, the sources of power that operate
these products have been required to deliver increasingly higher levels of
energy. To meet this requirement, nickel-metal hydride batteries have been
developed.
Construction
• cathode: Nickel oxyhydroxide
• anode: Hydrogen-absorbing alloys in the form of metal hydride
• Separator: Fine fibers
• Electrolyte: Alkaline, mainly potassium hydroxide
• Case: Metal, with self-resealing safety vent

Structure and Alloys

• Hydrogen-absorbing alloys absorb/release hydrogen
• Alloy types: AB (TiFe, etc.), AB2 (ZnMn2, etc.), AB5 (LaNi5, etc.)
and A2B (Mg2Ni, etc.) preferred for electrodes

Charge and Discharge

• Hydrogen moves between electrodes during charge/discharge
• No change in electrolyte concentration
• Sealed design maintains internal pressure
Discharge Electrochemical Reaction
Charging Electrochemical Reaction

Source: Frequently Asked Questions | Kawasaki Heavy Industries

Advantages
• High Energy Density: Surpasses Ni-Cd batteries, with capacities ranging from
1000mAh to 3000mAh or higher
• Long Cycle Life: Hundreds to thousands of recharge cycles
• Environmentally Friendly: Fewer harmful materials, no toxic cadmium
• Safety: Stable, lower risk of thermal runaway or fire hazards
• Cost-Effective: Long-term economic power solution with fewer replacements
needed
Disadvantages
• Self-Discharge: Loses 1-5% charge per day when idle
• Memory Effect: Potential issues if not fully discharged before recharging
• Temperature Sensitivity: Performance affected by extreme temperatures
• Charging: Slower charging rates, limited fast charging capability
• Voltage Output: Lower compared to newer battery chemistries
Applications • Emergency lighting and
backup power
• Consumer electronics
• Renewable energy storage
• Power tools
• Flashlights and portable
• Medical devices
devices
• Hybrid vehicles
• Electric bicycles and scooters
Lithium-ion Batteries

❖ Lithium metal cannot be used safely in secondary batteries.

❖ In these types of batteries, The electrolyte is normally LiPF6 (LiBF4
can also be used instead of LiPF6 as it is not resistant to
corrosion).
Lithium ion cells
➢ Cathode: a transition metal oxide MO2 of variable oxidation state (MnO2,
CoO2, NiO2) which can intercalate lithium usually cobalt dioxide, CoO2 is
used

➢ Anode: made up of graphite, in to which lithium ion is intercalated (LixC6).

➢ Separators: polyolefin’s (PP/PE/PP or just PE) using 3- to 8- μm layers

with 50% porosity.

➢ Electrolyte: 1-molar solution of a lithium salt in an organic solvent.

Eg: 1)Lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) in the solvent

propylene carbonate
2)Lithium tetrafluoroborate(LiBF4 ) in the solvent ethylene carbonate
❖ The anode is lithium-carbide type intercalate (LixC6).
❖ The cathode is a transition metal oxide MO2 of variable oxidation
state (MnO2, CoO2, NiO2) which can intercalate lithium (usually
cobalt dioxide, CoO2 is used). Lithiated metal oxide such as
LiCoO2, LiV2O5, LiMn2O4 are inserted into the cathode which
consists of a layered graphite crystal.
❖ The electrolyte is usually inert (polar) dry ether or carbonates
(diethyl carbonate or propylene carbonate), in which a
conductivity salt such as LiPF6 or LiBF4 is dissolved.
▪ It is called as a lithium ion battery as contains no lithium
metal.
▪ Both the electrodes are intercalation compounds.
▪ The anode is a special intercalation compound consisting
of a graphite host into which lithium ions have been
electrochemically inserted between the carbon atom
layers.
▪ The lithiated graphite is written as LixC6.
 Working Principle
Discharge reaction:-

The main principle is based on the movement of lithium ions

between anode and cathode through the electrolyte occurs
during charge and discharge process.

Anode reaction: LixC6 xLi+ + xe- + 6C

Cathode: xLi+ + xe- +CoO2 LixCoO2

The overall cell reaction is as follows:

Overall: CoO2 + Lix C6 LixCoO2 +6C

Charging reaction:-

The main principle is based on the movement of lithium

ions between anode and cathode through the electrolyte
occurs during charge and discharge process.

Anode: LixCoO2 xLi+ + xe- + CoO2

Cathode reaction: xLi+ + xe- + 6C LixC6

The overall cell reaction is as follows:

Overall: LixCoO2 CoO2 + LixC6

Working of Li- ion cell

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45
➢ When charged, cobalt ions are oxidized and lithium ions
migrate into the graphite
➢ Because of this reason, the lithium ion batteries are
called ‘Rocking chair, ‘Swing’ cells
➢ When discharging, the battery delivers energy to the
external load and when charging it receives energy from
a d.c. power source.
➢ The electrode that acts as an anode, during discharging
becomes a cathode when its charging.
Applications:

1. Used in applications where one or more of the advantages

(size, weight or energy) outweigh the additional cost, such as
mobile telephones and mobile computing devices.

2. Used when the battery design matters in a particular

application as different designs are possible (Cylindrical, jelly-
roll design, flat rectangular).

3. Used in current-generation laptops, cellular phones, video-

recorders, portable CD players, televisions and implantable
medical devices.
Advantages
1. Designed to overcome the safety problems associated with the highly
reactive properties of Lithium metal.
2. Long cycle life (400-1200 cycles).
3. Smaller, lighter and provide greater energy density than either nickel-
cadmium or nickel-metal-hydride batteries
4. Can be operated in a wide temperature range and can be recharged
before they are fully charged.
5. Typically designed to be recharged in the device rather than in an
external charger.
6. The average voltage of a Li-ion battery is equivalent to three Ni-Cd
cells.
7. A typical Li-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of electricity in 1
kilogram of battery as compared to lead acid batteries can sore only
25 watt-hours of electricity in one kilogram.

Disadvantages
1. Poor charge retention
2. Self discharge rate is about 10% per month
3. High cost
Sodium-Ion Batteries
• Economical alternative to lithium-ion
• Abundant sodium, lower energy density
• Suitable for cost-effective stationary storage
Sodium-ion Batteries (SIBs)
• Sodium Availability
• Abundant in Earth’s crust and seawater
• Simpler, less energy-intensive extraction than lithium
• Cost-effective raw material for large-scale storage

Similarities and Differences with Li-ion

• Both Li and Na are Group 1 Alkali Metals
• Similar electron loss properties, ideal for batteries
• Difference in ionic radii: Li+ (~0.76 Å) vs Na+ (~1.00 Å)
• Larger Na+ ions challenge traditional electrode materials
Challenges in Na-ion Technology
• Developing electrode materials for larger Na+ ions
• Novel electrode materials like Prussian blue analogues for
improved mobility and layered sodium vanadates
• Lower energy and power densities than Li-ion batteries
Advancements
• Research on optimizing electrode materials and electrolytes
• Focus on enhancing performance metrics
Sodium-Ion Battery Technology advancements:
New Cathode/Anode Materials: Layered structures, Prussian blue,
polyanionic structures for cathodes; hard carbons, sodium
titanates, antimonene for anodes.
• Dual-Ion Approach: Incorporation of potassium ions to enhance
performance.
• Doping & Surface Mods: Element doping and conductive
coatings to boost conductivity and stability.
• Solid-State Electrolytes: Safer, potentially higher energy density
electrolytes.
• Electrolyte Additives: Interface stabilization for improved
conductivity and longevity.
• Computational Modeling: Accelerated material development
through ion behavior simulation.
Potential applications of Sodium-Ion Batteries for Grid Storage and
Stationary Energy Needs:
• Cost-Effectiveness: Abundant and inexpensive sodium reduces production
costs for grid storage.
• Safety: Superior thermal stability compared to some lithium-ion
chemistries.
• Fast Charging: Some designs allow rapid energy delivery for peak shaving.
• Long Cycle Life: Sufficient for grid storage with potential for further
improvement.
• Environmental Sustainability: Non-toxic sodium minimizes environmental
impact.
• Grid Balancing: Well-suited for integrating renewable energy sources.
• Solid-State Electrolytes: Safer alternative to flammable liquid electrolytes.
Alternative energy Devices: Fuel cells
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which chemical energy of a fuel –
oxidant system is converted directly into electrical energy in a
continuous electrochemical process

The reactants (i.e. fuel + oxidant) are

constantly supplied from outside and the
products are removed at the same rate as
they are formed.
Anode:
Fuel → Oxidation products+ ne-
Cathode:
Oxidant + ne- → Reduction products 54
Advantages:

High fuel to electricity conversion efficiency of 70-75% is observed

in fuel cells compared to thermal power plants (35-40% )

Fuel cells do not cause noise pollution, chemical pollution & thermal
pollution normally associated with conventional power plants.

A fuel cell produce a steady electric current as long as fresh reactants

are available.
Disadvantages

• Degradation or malfunction of components limits the practical operating

life and working of fuel cells on a large scale.

• Sensitive to fuel contaminants such as CO, H2S, NH3 & halides,

depending on the type of fuel cell. These contaminants must be
minimized in the fuels to enhance the cells’ efficiency

• High initial cost because of the expensive noble metals and catalysts are
required in the construction of certain fuel cells.
Fuel cells

Courtesy of Toshiba
Micro fuel cell Toshiba fuel cell with refueling cartridge
 Methanol Fuel cell
Construction

• Electrolyte:- Sulphuric acid

• Electrodes:- Typical gas diffusion electrodes, made up of

porous C coated with Pt catalyst.

• Fuel:- Methanol

• Oxidant:- Air

• Catalyst:- Platinum

• Operating temperature:- 50 – 120oC.

• Charge-carrier:- H+
Schematic Diagram of a Methanol Fuel Cell

59
 Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell

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 Proton exchange membrane cell
Construction

• Electrolyte:- Ion exchange polymeric membranes.

• Electrodes:- Typical gas diffusion electrodes, made up of

porous C coated with Pt catalyst.

• Fuel:- Hydrogen

• Oxidant:- Air

• Catalyst:- Platinum

• Operating temperature:- 30 – 80oC.

• Charge-carrier:- H+
 Perflourinated membrane by DuPont.

F F F F F F F F F
Role of conducting membrane
C C C C C C C C C

F F F F O F F F F
1. It acts as electrolyte to provide ionic
F C F
conduction b/w anode and cathode
F C F
2. Its serve as a separator for two
O
reactant gases
F C F

F C F

O=S=O
-
O
+
H

PERFLUOROSULFONIC ACID MEMBRANE

• Working
Anode reaction:
H2 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode reaction:
½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H 2O

Overall reaction:-
H2 + ½ O2 H2O

❖ Optimized proton and water transport properties of

membrane are crucial for efficient fuel cell operation
 PEMFC
Advantages Disadvantages
• Dehydration of membrane reduces
• solid electrolyte provides proton conductivity and excess
excellent resistance to gas water can lead to flooding of the
crossover. electrolyte. Both the conditions
leading to poor performance.
• low operating temperature • Perflourinated membranes have high
allows rapid start-up cost
• sensitive to poisoning by trace levels
of contaminants including CO,
• capable of high current
sulfur species and ammonia.
densities
• Can be operated at lower
tempearture ranges.
 Differences and Similarities
Fuel cell Galvanic Cell
• Do not store chemical energy • Store chemical energy
• Reactants fed from outside the • Reactants form an integral part of
cell continuously its construction.
• Need expensive noble metal • These special conditions are not
catalysts & optimum required
operative conditions • Get-discharged when stored – up
• Do not get discharged & no energy is exhausted.
need of charging • Limited life span in use
• Never becomes dead as long
as fresh reactants are available
• Useful for long-term • Useful as portable power services.
electricity generation.
• Reaction products must be • No such problem
continuously removed
• No pollutants generated • Pollutants are generated after their
• Significantly higher power useful life
densities • Lower power density
 Safety Concerns with Lithium-Ion Batteries

• Internal Shorts and Thermal Runaway: Damage or malfunction can

lead to dangerous heating and pressure build-up.
• Overcharging and Overheating: Excessive heat from overcharging or
high temperatures can trigger thermal runaway.
• Physical Damage: Dropping or crushing can damage internal
components, causing short circuits.

• Manufacturing Defects: Poor manufacturing can

increase the risk of thermal runaway; quality control is
vital.
• Puncture or Penetration: Puncturing a battery can
cause internal shorts and thermal runaway.
• Age and Degradation: Over time, batteries degrade,
becoming more prone to overheating and thermal
runaway.
 Safety Measures and Environmental Impact of Battery Production:
• Safety Measures in Lithium-Ion Batteries:
• Battery Management Systems (BMS): Monitors and controls
charging/discharging to prevent hazards.
• Thermal Management Systems: Utilize heat sinks and fans to
prevent thermal runaway.
• Quality Control and Testing: Ensures detection and correction
of cell flaws before market entry.
• Safety Standards and Regulations: Established by authorities to
ensure safe battery use. (interms of design,production and
utilization)
• Environmental Impact of Battery Production:

• Resource Extraction: Mining for battery materials can lead

to ecological damage.
• Energy Intensity: High energy consumption in production;
renewable energy can reduce impact.
• Chemical Pollution: Handling and disposal of hazardous
chemicals must be managed safely.
• Water Usage: Significant water use in production;
conservation and recycling are key.
End-of-Life Management:
• Crucial Disposal Management: Essential to minimize
environmental harm.
• Recycling Infrastructure: Development needed to prevent
pollution.
• Material Reuse: Advocacy for reusing battery materials to
reduce impact.
Environmental Considerations:
• Vital Role of Batteries: Key in renewable energy and
electrification transition.
• Mitigation of Environmental Impact: Necessary at all life stages
of batteries.
• Sustainable Practices: Implementation critical for
environmental protection.
• Technical Advancements: Adoption can address manufacturing
concerns.
• Regulatory Frameworks: Establishment helps ensure
environmental safety.