Knowledge

• Objectives:
– Understand the term Knowledge and explain
how its related to intelligence and experience
– Explain the different types of knowledge

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 1

 Knowledge
• Knowledge can be defined as the ``understanding obtained through the
process of experience or appropriate study.''
• Knowledge can also be an accumulation of facts, procedural rules, or
heuristics.
– A fact is generally a statement representing truth about a subject matter
or domain.
– A procedural rule is a rule that describes a sequence of actions.
– A heuristic is a rule of thumb based on years of experience.
• Intelligence implies the capability to acquire and apply appropriate
knowledge.
– Memory indicates the ability to store and retrieve relevant experience
according to will.
– Learning represents the skill of acquiring knowledge using the method
of instruction/study.
• Experience relates to the understanding that we develop through our past
actions.
• Knowledge can develop over time through successful experience, and
experience can lead to expertise.
• Common sense refers to the natural and mostly unreflective opinions of
humans.
Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 2
 Cognitive Psychology

• Cognitive psychology tries to identify the cognitive

structures and processes that closely relates to skilled
performance within an area of operation.
• It provides a strong background for understanding
knowledge and expertise.
• In general, it is the interdisciplinary study of human
intelligence.
• The two major components of cognitive psychology are:
– Experimental Psychology: This studies the
cognitive processes that constitutes human
intelligence.
– Artificial Intelligence(AI): This studies the cognition
of Computer-based intelligent systems.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 3

 Cognitive Psychology
• The process of eliciting and representing experts
knowledge usually involves a knowledge developer and
some human experts (domain experts).
• In order to gather the knowledge from human experts,
the developer usually interviews the experts and asks for
information regarding a specific area of expertise.
• It is almost impossible for humans to provide the
completely accurate reports of their mental processes.
• The research in the area of cognitive psychology helps
to a better understanding of what constitutes knowledge,
how knowledge is elicited, and how it should be
represented in a corporate knowledge base.
• Hence, cognitive psychology contributes a great deal to
the area of knowledge management.
Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 4
 Data, Information and
Knowledge
• Data represents unorganized and unprocessed facts.
– Usually data is static in nature.
– It can represent a set of discrete facts about events.
– Data is a prerequisite to information.
– An organization sometimes has to decide on the nature and
volume of data that is required for creating the necessary
information.
• Information
– Information can be considered as an aggregation of data
(processed data) which makes decision making easier.
– Information has usually got some meaning and purpose.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 5

 Data, Information and
Knowledge
• Knowledge
– By knowledge we mean human understanding of a subject
matter that has been acquired through proper study and
experience.
– Knowledge is usually based on learning, thinking, and proper
understanding of the problem area.
– Knowledge is not information and information is not data.
– Knowledge is derived from information in the same way
information is derived from data.
– We can view it as an understanding of information based on its
perceived importance or relevance to a problem area.
– It can be considered as the integration of human perceptive
processes that helps them to draw meaningful conclusions.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 6

 Categories of Knowledge
• Deep Knowledge: Knowledge acquired through years of proper
experience.
• Shallow Knowledge: Minimal understanding of the problem area.
• Knowledge as Know-How: Accumulated lessons of practical experience.
• Reasoning and Heuristics: Some of the ways in which humans reason are
as follows:
– Reasoning by analogy: This indicates relating one concept to another.
– Formal Reasoning: This indicates reasoning by using deductive (exact)
or inductive reasoning.
• Deduction uses major and minor premises.
• In case of deductive reasoning, new knowledge is generated by
using previously specified knowledge.
• Inductive reasoning implies reasoning from a set of facts to a
general conclusion.
• Inductive reasoning is the basis of scientific discovery.
• A case is knowledge associated with an operational level.
• Common Sense: This implies a type of knowledge that almost every
human being possess in varying forms/amounts.
Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 7
 Types of Knowledge
• We can also classify knowledge on the basis of whether
it is procedural, declarative, semantic, or episodic.
• Procedural knowledge represents the understanding of
how to carry out a specific procedure.
• Declarative knowledge is routine knowledge about
which the expert is conscious. It is shallow knowledge
that can be readily recalled since it consists of simple
and uncomplicated information. This type of knowledge
often resides in short-term memory.
• Semantic knowledge is highly organized, ``chunked''
knowledge that resides mainly in long-term memory.
Semantic knowledge can include major concepts,
vocabulary, facts, and relationships.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 8

 Types of Knowledge
• Episodic knowledge represents the knowledge based
on episodes (experimental information). Each episode is
usually ``chunked'' in long-term memory.
• Conceptual knowledge: abstract knowledge of
concepts and relationships among concepts
• Meta-Knowledge: knowledge about knowledge
• Another way of classifying knowledge is to find whether it
is tacit or explicit
– Tacit knowledge usually gets embedded in human
mind through experience.
– Explicit knowledge is that which is codified and
digitized in documents, books, reports, spreadsheets,
memos etc.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 9

 Expert Knowledge

• It is the information woven inside the mind of an

expert for accurately and quickly solving
complex problems.
• Knowledge Chunking
– Knowledge is usually stored in experts long-range
memory as chunks.
– Knowledge chunking helps experts to optimize their
memory capacity and enables them to process the
information quickly.
– Chunks are groups of ideas that are stored and
recalled together as an unit.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 10

 Knowledge as an Attribute of
Expertise
– In most areas of specialization, insight and knowledge
accumulate quickly, and the criteria for expert
performance usually undergo continuous change.
– In order to become an expert in a particular area, one
is expected to master the necessary knowledge and
make significant contributions to the concerned field.
– The unique performance of a true expert can be
easily noticed in the quality of decision making.
– The true experts (knowledgeable) are usually found to
be more selective about the information they acquire,
and also they are better able in acquiring information
in a less structured situation.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 11

 Knowledge as an Attribute of
Expertise
– They can quantify soft information, and can categorize problems
on the basis of solution procedures that are embedded in the
experts long range memory and readily available on recall.
– Hence, they tend to use knowledge-based decision strategies
starting with known quantities to deduce unknowns.
– If a first-cut solution path fails, then the expert can trace back a
few steps and then proceed again.
– Nonexperts use means-end decision strategies to approach the
the problem scenario.
– Nonexperts usually focus on goals rather than focusing on
essential features of the task which makes the task more time
consuming and sometimes unreliable.
– Specific individuals are found to consistently perform at higher
levels than others and they are labeled as experts.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 12

 Thinking and Learning in Humans

• Research in the area of artificial intelligence has

introduced more structure into human thinking about
thinking.
• Humans do not necessarily receive and process
information in exactly the same way as the machines do.
• Humans can receive information via seeing, smelling,
touching, hearing (sensing) etc., which promotes a way
of thinking and learning that is unique to humans.
• On macro level, humans and computers can receive
inputs from a multitude of sources.
• Computers can receive inputs from keyboards, touch
screens etc.

Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 13

 Thinking and Learning in Humans

• On micro level, both human brain and CPU of a

computer receive information as electrical impulses.
• The point to note here is that the computers must be
programmed to do specific tasks. Performing one task
does not necessarily transcend onto other tasks as it
may do with humans.
• Human learning: Humans learn new facts, integrate
them in some way which they think is relevant and
organize the result to produce necessary solution, advice
and decision. Human learning can occur in the following
ways:
– Learning through Experience.
– Learning by Example.
– Learning by Discovery.
Compiled by E.Maina SIT 305 Slides 14