TISSUES

Chapter Outline
I. Tissues (5.1.1–5.1.5)
a. Tissues are groups of cells with a specific function. The study of tissue
structure, organization, and function is called histology. Pathology is the
study of the changes associated with the occurrence of disease in tissues.
b. The four types of tissues in the body are:
i. Epithelial tissues form coverings, linings, and glands.
ii. Connective tissues provide protection and support.
iii. Muscle tissues provide movement.
iv. Nervous tissues allow communication and control of body activities.
c. The general structure of a tissue includes the extracellular matrix (ECM). The
ECM is the material found outside of the cells of a tissue. The ECM may
contain collagen fibers and proteoglycans.
i. Collagen fibers are tough, protective protein fibers.
ii. Proteoglycans are negatively-charged protein/carbohydrate
molecules.
d. Cellular connections form attachments between cells.
i. Tight junctions do not allow movement between the attached cells.
ii. Desmosomes are flexible connections that allow some movement.
iii. Gap junctions are passageways that freely allow movement.
II. Epithelial Tissue (5.2.1–5.2.6)
a. Epithelial tissues form coverings, linings, and glands within the body.
b. All epithelial tissues are anchored to a basement membrane that will attach
the tissue to the ECM. The basement membrane creates two surfaces related
to epithelia. The basal surface is attached to basement membrane. The
apical surface is exposed to the external environment or internal space.
c. Epithelial tissues are avascular and receive nutrients from the surrounding
connective tissues. They are also highly regenerative.
d. Epithelial tissues are classified based on the shape of the cells within the
tissue and the arrangement of the layers within the tissue (see Figure 5.5).
i. Squamous—flat cells
ii. Cuboidal—box-shaped cells
iii. Columnar—column-like cells
iv. Simple—one layer of cells
v. Stratified—two or more layers of cells
vi. Pseudostratified—one layer of cells that appears like more
e. Simple epithelia contain cells arranged into one layer (see table 5.01).
i. Simple squamous epithelium
ii. Simple cuboidal epithelium
iii. Simple columnar epithelium
iv. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
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f. Stratified epithelia contain cells arranged into multiple layers (table 5.01).
i. Stratified squamous epithelium
ii. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
iii. Stratified columnar epithelium
iv. Transitional epithelium
g. Glandular epithelia are tissues that synthesize and secrete chemicals.
i. Endocrine glands secrete chemicals into the body or bloodstream.
They do not have a duct and usually secrete hormones. Exocrine
glands secrete chemicals onto epithelial tissue. Exocrine glands
typically have a duct and secrete substances like saliva, mucous, and
sweat.
III. Connective Tissue (5.3.1–5.3.3)
a. Connective tissues serve multiple functions within the human body. These
functions include transportation, attachment, energy storage, protection, and
support.
b. The 12 connective tissues are separated into three categories:
i. Connective tissue proper consists of areolar, adipose, reticular, dense
regular, and dense irregular connective tissues.
ii. Supportive connective tissues include hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage,
elastic cartilage, compact bone, spongy bone.
iii. Fluid connective tissues consists of blood and lymph.
c. Connective tissues are composed of cells and an extracellular matrix (ECM).
The differences in cellular makeup and ECM lead to different functions for
connective tissues. The ECM is composed of fibers and ground substance.
d. The cells of connective tissues include:
i. Fibroblasts that produce fibers in the ECM.
1. Collagen fibers are the strongest fibers within connective
tissues. They provide strength and support. Elastic fibers are
able to stretch from their original shape and then regain that
original shape. Reticular fibers support the internal framework
of soft organs.
ii. Adipocytes store energy in the form of lipids and provide cushioning.
iii. White blood cells provide immune function and protect the body.
iv. Red blood cells carry gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide within
blood.
e. Loose connective tissues have fewer fibers and the fibers that are present
are tightly packed together (see Figures 5.11 and 5.12).
i. Areolar connective tissue is found in a variety of locations like the
subcutaneous layers. It is vascularized and supports nearby tissues.
ii. Adipose tissue can also be found in the subcutaneous layer.
Adipocytes contain adipose that can be used for energy storage and
cushioning.
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iii. Reticular connective tissue contains very fine reticular fibers and
forms the internal framework of soft organs like the liver and spleen.
f. Dense connective tissues have more fibers and the fibers are typically more
densely packed (see Figures 5.14 and 5.15).
i. Dense regular connective tissue is found in tendons. It is composed of
fibroblasts that secrete collagen fibers that are organized in the same
direction.
ii. Dense irregular connective tissue can be found in the dermis of the
skin. The collagen fibers of this tissue are organized in multiple
directions.
g. Cartilage is a semi-solid connective tissue. It provides structure and flexibility
in locations where it’s found. It is covered by a perichondrium that supplies
nutrients to the tissue. Besides the perichondrium, cartilage is avascular. The
cells of cartilage are called chondrocytes and they are located in spaces
called lacunae.
i. The three types of cartilage include (see Figure 5.17):
1. Hyaline cartilage is located within joints and attached to ribs.
2. Fibrocartilage is located in the intervertebral discs and the
pubic symphysis.
3. Elastic cartilage is located in the external ear.
h. Bone is a solid connective tissue that provides protection and support to
internal organs (see Figure 5.19). Compact bone is solid with greater strength
when compared to spongy bone. Muscles contract on bone to cause
movement of the body. Spongy bone contains empty spaces housing red
bone marrow.
i. Fluid connective tissues are blood and lymph (see Figure 5.20). These tissues
transport molecules and cells throughout the body. Cells found in blood
include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Lymph is acellular.
IV. Muscle Tissue (5.4.1–5.4.3)
a. The major function of all muscle tissue is movement. Muscle tissues contract
in response to stimuli. Voluntary muscle is under conscious control and
contracts in response to conscious stimuli. Involuntary muscle is under
unconscious control.
b. Skeletal muscle is found attached to bones (see Figure UNF 5.35). It facilitates
body movement and maintains posture. It is voluntarily controlled.
Histologically, skeletal muscle contains striations. Striations are alternating
light and dark bands seen with a light microscope. The cells of skeletal
muscle are shaped like cylinders and multinucleated.
c. Cardiac muscle is found in the walls of the heart (see Figure UNF 5.35).
Histologically, cardiac muscle cells are striated with a branching shape.
Intercalated discs anchor the cells together and aid in communication
between cells. The cardiac muscle cells are controlled by the heart with
influence from the nervous and endocrine systems.
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d. Smooth muscle is found within internal organs (see Figure UNF 5.35). The
cells of smooth muscle are spindle-shaped and lack striations. It is under
involuntary control. It is associated with the digestive, respiratory, urinary,
and reproductive systems.
V. Nervous Tissue (5.5.1–5.5.2)
a. Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. It is
able to generate and conduct action potentials that allow for control and
communication within the body. Nervous tissue consists of neurons and glial
cells.
b. Neurons generate action potentials (see Figure 5.22). The dendrites are short
branches that receive incoming signals to a neuron. The cell body houses the
nucleus and organelles. The cell body is also known as the soma. Each
neuron has one axon. An axon is a long projection used to send action
potentials away from the cell body.
c. A synapse is a gap between a neuron and its target.
d. Glial cells perform support functions for neurons. They may form myelin to
help increase the speed of action potentials traveling down the axon, nourish
neurons, and protect them.
VI. Mucous membranes are found lining body cavities that are exposed to the external
environment. These membranes usually have thick layers of epithelial tissue and
goblet cells that secrete protective mucous. Mucous membranes are associated
with the digestive tract, respiratory tract, urinary tract, and reproductive tract.
VII. Serous membranes cover and line internal organs. The function of a serous
membrane is to reduce the friction created as organs move. Examples of serous
membranes include the pericardium of the heart, the pleura of the lungs, and the
peritoneum of the abdominal cavity.
VIII. The cutaneous membrane is essentially the skin. It protects the body from
desiccation and pathogens. The epidermis of the cutaneous membrane is made of
stratified squamous epithelium. The cells contain keratin that aids cells in
protection.
IX. Synovial membranes are found inside freely moveable joints like the elbow, hip, and
knee. They secrete synovial fluid that helps lubricate the joint and nourish cartilage
of joint.
X. Tissue Growth and Healing (5.7.1–5.7.4)
a. Inflammation is the body’s standard, initial response to injury. It helps limit
the extent of injury and begins the repair process. Vasodilation is the
underlying cause of inflammation. Acute inflammation is a short-term
process. Chronic inflammation lasts for long periods of time.
b. The process of inflammation beings when damage to a tissue causes
cytokine release (see Figure 5.24). Vasodilation brings leukocytes to limit
spread of pathogens. Area becomes warm, red, painful, and swollen. Tissue
repair begins after infection is contained.
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c. Tissues change as the body ages. These changes usually occur as the rate of
mitosis slows down. This leads to age-associated changes like slower tissue
healing, decreased elasticity, joint stiffness, high blood pressure and
wrinkles.
d. Mutations that alter the regulatory signals a cell receives may cause it to
begin to grow uncontrollably. As the collection of abnormal cells increases in
size it is called a tumor. Malignant tumors cause damage to the body. Benign
tumors do not cause disease in the body.

Answers to Learning Check, Apply to Pathophysiology,

and Chapter Review Questions
Learning Check Questions, Section 5.1c:
1. a. Muscle
b. Nerve
Bloom’s level: Remember
Rationale: The four major categories of tissues are epithelial, connective, muscle,
and nervous. Bone is composed of connective tissue and skin is composed of
epithelial tissue.
2. a. Collagen
Bloom’s level: Analyze
Rationale: Ligaments, which are tough and protective, have more collagen in their
extracellular matrix because collagen is also tough and protective.
3. b. Anchoring junctions form strong connections to structurally stabilize cells.
d. Tight junctions fuse cells to prevent materials from slipping between cells.
Bloom’s level: Understand
Rationale: Anchoring junctions serve to provide structural stability and tight
junctions serve to prevent seepage between cells.

Learning Check Questions, Section 5.2a:

1. b. Inside lining of the throat
Bloom’s level: Analyze
Rationale: Epithelial cells are found in areas of the body that are in contact with the
“outside” world. When you open your mouth, your mouth and throat are in
contact with the “outside” world. The throat is also exposed to a lot of friction
from the food you eat, so damaged cells are sloughed off the surface of your
throat with each bite!
2. a. Apical side of epithelium
Bloom’s level: Understand
Rationale: The superficial layer is the apical side of epithelium; think “apex,” as in the
top.
3. d. Lamina densa