Definition of Mixing

 Mixing is the process of combining two or more ingredients so each particle of one
ingredient is as close as possible to particles of the other ingredients (Perry and Chilton,
1973).
 Blending is another term for mixing.
 Demixing or segregation is the opposite of mixing.
 Mixing leads to the random spread of different particles in a system.
Why Mixing is Important
Mixing is an essential step in many processes, typically done to:
1. Control heat and mass transfer - Helps spread energy or matter evenly.
2. Ensure uniform composition - Ensures a small sample taken from the mixture
represents the whole.
3. Improve single-phase and multi-phase systems - Makes systems with one or multiple
phases stable and uniform.
4. Promote chemical and physical reactions - Speeds up reactions like dissolving by adding
movement (agitation).
Types of Mixing
1. Positive Mixing
o Occurs in systems where materials mix spontaneously and irreversibly, like two
gases or fully miscible liquids.
o This type of mixing does not need external energy but adding energy speeds up
the process.
o Positive mixtures are easy to form and maintain.
2. Negative Mixing
o Happens in systems where the phases separate quickly, like emulsions,
suspensions, or creams.
o Needs continuous energy input to stay mixed (e.g., stirring or shaking).
o Negative mixtures are harder to create and maintain.
3. Neutral Mixing
o Occurs in systems that do not mix or separate on their own.
 o Only an external force can initiate mixing.
o Examples include mixtures of powders or pastes.
Types of Mixing Equipment
Different equipment is used depending on the type of material:
 Liquids
 Semi-solids
 Solids
Liquid Mixing Mechanisms
Liquid mixing relies on four main mechanisms:
1. Bulk Transport
o Large parts of material are moved from one place to another.
o Simple circulation doesn’t mix well; there needs to be a rearrangement.
o Achieved by paddles or blades moving the fluid in different directions.
2. Turbulent Mixing
o Created by turbulent flow where fluid velocity changes randomly.
o Turbulence leads to effective mixing, where fluid motion mixes molecules
randomly.
o Involves eddies (portions of fluid moving against the main flow), which break into
smaller ones until thoroughly mixed.
3. Laminar Mixing
o Happens in viscous fluids or under gentle stirring.
o Mixing occurs in layers, where shear forces stretch and fold the layers.
o Without enough folding, laminar mixing takes a long time to achieve uniformity.
4. Molecular Diffusion
o Mixing at the molecular level caused by the thermal motion of molecules.
o Works along with laminar flow to smooth out sharp boundaries between layers.
o Based on Fick’s first law of diffusion, which says the rate of mixing depends on
concentration differences and molecular properties.
Liquid Mixing Equipment
Liquid mixing systems have two main parts:
1. Container (Tank) - Holds the material.
2. Energy Source - Powers the mixing process with devices like impellers, air streams, or
liquid jets.
o Baffles, vanes, and ducts are also used to improve mixing by directing material
flow.
o Batch mixing is used for small volumes, while continuous mixing is preferred for
large volumes

Types of Impellers

Impellers are devices used to mix liquids in tanks by rotating. They are classified
into:
1. Propellers
2. Turbines
3. Paddles
Impellers create a flow pattern in the liquid, preventing "dead zones" where no
mixing occurs. There are three main flow directions:
 Radial: Moves liquid outward from the center of the impeller.
 Axial: Moves liquid up or down, parallel to the impeller shaft.
 Tangential: Moves liquid in a circular pattern around the shaft.
Types of Impellers Explained
1. Propellers
o Propellers are similar to screws, with blades that create an axial flow, moving the
liquid up or down.
o They are effective for low-viscosity liquids and work well at high speeds.
o Commonly used with three blades angled at a pitch that often matches the
diameter of the propeller.
o They create intense turbulence near the blades, which helps mix liquid from all
areas of the tank.
2. Turbines
o Unlike propellers, turbine blades don’t maintain a constant pitch along their
length.
o Radial flow turbines have blades set at a 90-degree angle to the shaft, pushing
liquid outward by centrifugal force.
o Turbines are effective for high-viscosity fluids and can handle fluids up to 1000
times more viscous than propellers.
o Variations in blade angle can create either radial or axial flow, depending on the
mixing requirement.
3. Paddles
o Paddles have large, flat blades and rotate at lower speeds (typically around 50
rpm).
o They are suited for high-viscosity liquids and semisolids because the large surface
area of the paddle blades can scrape and mix along the tank walls.
o Paddles primarily create tangential flow, which can cause concentration gradients
to persist.
o For better results, avoid adding layers of ingredients at once, as they might stay
unmixed even after long mixing times.
4. Hybrid Paddle Mixers (Dispertron)
o A Dispertron has two sets of coaxial blades for macro- and micro-mixing.
o This hybrid design, with counter-rotating blades, helps mix extremely thick
materials or those with high solid content.
o Produces high shear without creating a vortex and limits air entrapment, making
it ideal for emulsions and homogenous mixing.
Jet Mixers
1. Air Jets
o These use a jet of air (or sometimes another gas) to lift and mix liquids.
o Suitable for low-viscosity, non-foaming liquids that won’t react with air or the
gas.
o Draft tubes are used to guide the flow, increasing efficiency by directing liquid
circulation from the bottom to the top.
2. Fluid Jets
o These use liquid jets under high pressure to mix the contents of a tank.
o Acts similarly to propellers in generating axial flow and creating turbulence, but
without creating tangential flow.
o Fluid is pumped back into the tank through nozzles, allowing continuous mixing

Continuous or In-line Mixers

Definition
Continuous or in-line mixers produce a steady flow of freshly mixed material, ideal
for handling large amounts. Mixing can happen in two main ways:
1. Tube/Pipe Mixing: Material flows through a tube or pipe with little backflow. This needs
devices like vanes, baffles, screws, or grids to ensure even mixing.
2. Mixing Chamber: Material recirculates, allowing more control when input rates are hard
to maintain.
Key Points
 Efficient Mixing: For tube/pipe mixers, exact measurement of input materials is crucial
for a uniform mix.
 Power Efficiency: Only slightly more power is needed than for simple pipe transfer.
 Tank Mixing: If input rates fluctuate, a tank-based mixer dilutes variations, producing a
more consistent mixture.
Practical Consideration in Tank Mixers
 In tank mixers, material is stirred continuously to keep it well-mixed.
 If the tank is large, small variations in input don’t affect output much (dilution effect).
 Using two smaller tanks in series reduces fluctuations more effectively.
Types of Mixing Systems
1. Single Tank: Simple but can show concentration fluctuations.
2. Series Tanks: Two tanks in sequence can stabilize concentration better than a single
tank.
Turbine-Agitated Tank
 Two mixing zones (above and below the impeller) act like two tanks in series.
  Complex tank arrangements (series and parallel) are used for specialized mixing.

Practical Considerations for Mixing

Vortexing
 Issue: Central-mounted impellers can create a vortex, leading to poor mixing and
potential issues like foaming, oxidation, and reduced impeller power.
 Cause: Vortex forms when impeller induces tangential (spinning) flow rather than
effective mixing flow.
Effects of Vortexing
 Draws in air, causing foaming and oxidation.
 Reduces mixing power and efficiency.
 Harder to scale up due to different flow patterns in small vs. large tanks.
Preventing Vortexing
1. Impeller Placement: Off-center, inclined, or side-mounted positions reduce vortexing.
2. Tank Geometry: Asymmetrical or angled tanks prevent swirling.
3. Push-Pull Propeller: Dual propellers spinning in opposite directions cancel out rotation.
4. Baffles: Plates inside the tank (like side-wall baffles) convert spinning flow to vertical
movement, improving mixing.
5. Closed Tanks: Airtight, full-capacity tanks reduce vortexing, splash, and improve mixing
consistency.

1. Stages of Mixing Semisolids

The way semisolids mix changes depending on how much liquid is added. Here are the stages:

 Powder State:
o Start: When a small amount of liquid is added, the powder begins to form
clumps, called pellets.
o Mixing Difficulty: The mix is still rough and not uniform, making it hard to mix
well.
 Plastic State:
o With More Liquid: Adding more liquid makes the mixture smoother and more
uniform, but it’s thicker and harder to stir.
o Action: Shear forces (pushing and pulling) help make it more even.
 Sticky State:
 o More Liquid: The mixture becomes sticky, like a paste, and flows more easily,
though mixing remains slow.
 Liquid State:
o Fluid-Like Consistency: With even more liquid, it becomes a thin, fluid-like
mix, making it easier to reach a uniform consistency.

2. Types of Equipment for Mixing Semisolids

Different equipment is used to handle the various stages and consistencies in semisolid mixing.

Sigma-Blade Mixer

 Structure: Has two blades that rotate at different speeds to pull and knead the mix.
 How It Works: The blades break down clumps and spread solids evenly by generating
forces within the thick mixture.

Planetary Mixer

 Structure: The mixer rotates both around the container and on its own.
 Benefit: This double rotation keeps the mix moving continuously, leaving no "dead
zones" where the material could sit unmixed.

Mulling Mixer

 Purpose: Used to achieve a smooth, even consistency without crushing particles.

 How It Works: Weighted wheels press down to knead the material. The weight can be
adjusted, making it easy to control the mixing pressure.
 Best For: Already mixed materials with clumps that need breaking up.

Roller Mills

 Structure: Uses three rollers set close together to crush and shear the mixture.
 Process:
o The mixture goes through the rollers, which gradually make it finer and smoother.
o A scraper removes the mixture to prevent build-up.
 Benefit: Produces a fine, smooth mix by combining crushing and shearing actions.

Colloid Mill

 Structure: Has a high-speed rotor and a stationary part (stator) with a small gap between
them.
 How It Works: The rotor’s high speed creates strong shear forces that break down
particles, producing a finely mixed, smooth consistency.
 Best For: Commonly used in making emulsions or other semisolid pharmaceutical
products needing very fine particles.

Key Factors in Choosing a Mixer

1. Physical Properties:
o Density: Heavier or lighter materials need different handling in mixers to ensure
even distribution.
o Viscosity: Thick (high-viscosity) or thin (low-viscosity) materials need different
mixers. Viscosity determines the strength of the shear forces needed.
o Miscibility: Materials that mix well (miscible) are easier to blend, while those
that don’t (immiscible) may need extra help, like high shear forces, to become
uniform.
2. Economic Considerations:
o Processing Time: How quickly the mixer can produce the needed batch.
o Energy Requirements: Mixers vary in power consumption; some need more
energy than others.
o Mixer Cost: Both initial cost and maintenance affect long-term expenses.
3. Viscosity's Influence:
o Key Role of Viscosity: The thickness or thinness of the mixture largely dictates
the mixer type. High-viscosity materials (like pastes) need stronger, close-range
shearing forces, while low-viscosity materials mix more easily.

Mixing Mechanisms for Different Viscosity Levels

1. Low Viscosity Systems:

o Examples: Thin, liquid mixtures that are easy to mix.
o Characteristics: These systems mix quickly, often without needing strong
agitation, but agitation speeds things up.
o Technique: Turbulence and circulation are used to ensure a quick, even mix.
o Equipment: Air jets, fluid jets, and high-speed propellers are effective and can
handle viscosities up to around 10 poises.
2. Intermediate Viscosity Systems (e.g., Emulsions, Suspensions):
o Examples: Mixes containing immiscible liquids or fine solids (like suspensions).
o Characteristics: Needs to disperse and break down clumps without too much
fluid movement.
o Technique: High shear forces (cutting and tearing) break down particles without
creating turbulence.
o Equipment: Turbine impellers with flat blades work well as they handle
density or viscosity changes, and high-speed turbines with stators add strong
shear forces for mixing emulsions or suspensions.
3. High Viscosity Systems (e.g., Viscous Ointments, Pastes):
o Examples: Thick, paste-like mixtures that require intense effort to mix.
o Characteristics: Requires close-contact shearing to handle the thick consistency.
 o Technique: Shearing surfaces work closely, using kneading, stretching, and
folding actions to get an even mixture.
o Equipment: Paddle mixers, sigma-blade mixers, muller mixers, roller mills,
and colloid mills create the necessary shearing action.

Scale-Up Considerations

 Changes in Mixer Size, Shape, or Speed: Scaling up from lab scale to production scale
often changes mixing effectiveness due to different equipment sizes, shapes, or speed.
This is crucial in maintaining uniformity and quality as batch size increases.

Introduction to Solid Mixing

 Challenges in Theory: Unlike fluid mixing, solid mixing theory is less developed. This
gap is due to the complex nature of how particles interact.
 Powder Behavior: Powders may look like fluids when poured but differ significantly in
behavior. Fluids stay mixed when handled, but solids can re-segregate.
 Mixing Example: Imagine mixing two different colored powders. An ideal "perfect mix"
would have each particle closely contacting a particle of the other color, but this is nearly
impossible. Instead, a "random mix" is more achievable, where particles are randomly
distributed.

Mechanisms of Mixing in Tumbling Mixers

1. Flow Types in Tumbling Mixers:

o Slipping: Particles slide along tumbler walls in solid-body rotation.
o Avalanching: Particles flow down the surface in slow, discrete layers.
o Cascading and Cataracting: Particles move in waves and may become airborne
at high speeds.
o Centrifuging: Particles stick to tumbler walls due to high speeds.
2. Mixing Mechanisms:
o Convective Mixing: Moves large particle masses via paddles or screws, rapidly
distributing particles but potentially leaving unmixed areas.
o Shear Mixing: Slip planes cause layered flow, reducing separation and mixing
particles of different properties.
o Diffusive Mixing: Particles change positions randomly, leading to better mix
uniformity but at a slower rate.

Types of Mixing Equipment

1. Tumblers/Blenders:
o How They Work: Rotates materials in all directions, producing gentle mixing
forces.
o Types: Twin-shell (V-shaped), double-cone, drum, cube, and tetrahedral.
o Twin-Shell Blender: Common V-shape with blades rotating opposite the V for
better mixing. Rotational speed, typically between 30-100 rpm, is crucial—too
slow limits mixing, too fast leads to poor efficiency.
2. Agitator Mixers:
o Operation: Uses stationary containers with moving paddles or blades, providing
effective mixing even for sticky or aggregated materials.
o Types:
 Ribbon Mixer: Cylindrical with helical blades moving material along the
tank axis, producing a well-mixed result even with particle size and
density differences.
 Planetary Mixers: Often used before adding liquids; they orbit within the
mixing container, handling both solid and semi-solid substances.
 Nauta Mixer: Vertical screw mixer for three-dimensional mixing; lifts
particles from bottom to top while orbiting around a conical chamber. It
can be adapted for granulation and drying processes, even utilizing
vacuum drying for certain needs.

Here's a simplified guide to Specialized Mixers and Continuous Mixers for

your study preparation:

Specialized Mixers

1. Fluidized Air Mixer

o Design: Modified vertical mixer where the impeller is replaced by a fast-moving
stream of air.
o Mixing Process: Air enters from the bottom, creating a fluidized bed that
circulates and tumbles powder for effective mixing.
2. Rapid Mixer-Granulator (RMG)
o Function: Performs both dry mixing and wet granulation.
o Advantage: Combines processes in one unit, reducing time and improving
efficiency.
3. Lödige Mixer
o Description: High-shear mixer with a horizontal cylindrical shell and plow-
shaped tools.
o Features:
 Plow tools keep the mix fluidized.
 Chopper blades break up lumps.
o Efficiency: Can complete mixing within 30-60 seconds.
4. Diosna Mixer-Granulator
 o Structure: Vertical bowl with a high-speed blade at the bottom and a chopper
blade for breaking lumps.
o Purpose: Ideal for quick, efficient mixing and lump dispersion.
5. Gral Mixer-Granulator
o Design: Similar to planetary mixers but includes two mixing devices.
o Functionality:
 Large arm for primary mixing.
 Off-center chopper blade for additional mixing.
o Benefit: Enhanced cleaning ease as the main blade isn’t attached to the bowl.

Continuous Mixers

1. Characteristics of Continuous Mixers

o Consistency: Ensures even blending, essential for products like tablets where
uniformity is critical.
o Operation: Reduces segregation through continuous shearing and impact.
2. Types of Continuous Mixers:
o Blendex
 Design: No moving parts; uses fixed, twisting, or splitting elements for
mixing.
 Function: Powders drop from a hopper and mix through generated
interfacial surfaces.
 Advantage: Prevents heat generation and particle size reduction.
o Barrel-Type Continuous Mixer
 Mechanism: Tumbling motion with baffles that enhance mixing.
 Mixing Action: Baffles near the midpoint move some material backward,
creating intense mixing.
o Zig-Zag Continuous Blender
 Structure: Series of "V"-shaped chambers.
 Operation: When inverted, each chamber splits the material, with
portions moving forward or backward.
 Benefit: Effective mixing with each rotation directing material towards
the discharge end.
Classification of Solids
Solids may be classified into two major categories on the basis of their drying
behavior, namely (1) granular- or crystalline-type solids and (2) amorphous
solids.
Granular-or Crystalline-Type Solids
The water in crystalline solids is held in shallow and open surface pores as
well as in interstitial spaces between particles that are easily accessible to the
surface. Typical pharmaceuticals of the this category are calcium sulfate, zinc
oxide, and magnesium oxide.
The moisture in crystalline solids is lost with little hindrance by either
gravitational or capillary forces. The constant rate period is the major portion
of the drying curve, and this period continues until the material has virtually
no free water. The falling rate period is much shorter. Materials in this
category are usually inorganic substances and consequently are not affected
by heat, unless the temperature is high enough to change any hydrate forms
that the chemical may manifest. Equilibrium moisture contents for these
materials are close to zero.
Amorphous Solids
In these solids, the moisture is an integral part of the molecular structure as
well as being physically entrapped in fine capillaries and small interior pores.
Materials with fibrous, amorphous, or gelatinous structures such as starch,
casein, yeast, insulin, and aluminum hydroxide fall into this category.
Moisture movement is slow in amorphous solids and the liquid diffuses
through structural obstacles caused by the molecular configuration. The
drying curves of these amorphous materials have short constant-rate periods,
ending at high critical moisture contents. The first falling rate period, the
period of water unsaturation on the surface, is relatively short. The second
drying rate period is longer, as it depends on the diffusion rate of the water
through the solid. The equilibrium moisture content is high, because most of
the water remains intimately associated within the molecular interstitial
spaces of the substance. The structure and physiologic activity of many of
these substances are affected by high temperatures. All of the amorphous
solid materials are more difficult to dry than granular or crystalline solids.
******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******The drying of these materials often requires
the use of lower temperatures,
reduced pressure, and increased air flow.
******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******DRYERS
Dryers may be classified in several different ways depending on the criteria
used. Two useful classifications are based on either the method of heat
transfer or the method of solids handling. Classification according to the type
of heat transfer, i.e. conduction, convection and radiation, is important in
demonstrating gross differences in dryer design, operation, and energy
requirements. Classification by the method of solids handling is more suitable
when special attention must be given to the nature of the material to be dried.
When dryers are classified according to their method of solids handling,
the major criterion is the presence or absence of agitation of the material to be
dried. A dryer that produces excessive agitation is contraindicated when the
dried material is friable and subject to attrition. On the other hand, if the dried
product is intended to be pulverized, then the drying time can be reduced, and
the process made more efficient, by the use of a dryer that produces intense
agitation during the drying cycle.
Classification based on the method of solids handling is shown
schematically in Fig. 4.4. Dryers in this classification scheme are divided into
the following types:
1. Static-bed dryers—systems in which there is no relative movement
among the solid particles being dried, although there may be bulk motion
of the entire drying mass. Only a fraction of the total number of particles
is directly exposed to heat sources. The exposed surface can be increased
by decreasing the thickness of the bed and allowing drying air to flow
through it.
2. Moving-bed dryers—systems in which the drying particles are partially
separated so that they flow over each other. Motion may be induced by
either gravity or mechanical agitation. The resultant separation of the
particles and continuous exposure of new surfaces allow more rapid heat
and mass transfer than can occur in static beds.
3. Fluidized-bed dryers—systems in which the solid particles are partially
suspended in an upward-moving gas stream. The particles are lifted and
then they fall back in a random manner so that the resultant mixture of
solid and gas acts like a boiling liquid. The gas-solid contact is excellent
and results in better heat and mass transfer than in static and moving
******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******beds.
4. Pneumatic dryers—systems in which the drying particles are entrained
and conveyed in a high-velocity gas stream. Pneumatic systems further
improve on fluidized beds, because there is no channeling or short
circuiting of the gas flow path through a bed of particles. Each particle is
completely surrounded by an envelope of drying gas. The resultant heat
and mass transfer are extremely rapid, and thus, drying times are short.
Fig. 4.4: Classification tree of dryers, based on the methods of solid handling
Because of the great variety of available drying equipment, it is impossible to
describe all types of dryers. Attention is devoted to those that find ready
application to the production of pharmaceuticals. These dryers are grouped
according to their method of solids handling
Static-Bed Systems
 Tray and Truck Dryers:
o Tray Dryer:
 Known as shelf, cabinet, or compartment dryers.
 Has multiple trays (from 3 to 20) where material is spread out to dry.
 Simple and affordable, but labor-intensive and slow compared to newer
methods.
o Truck Dryer:
 Similar to tray dryers but with trays mounted on wheeled trucks (carts),
making loading and unloading easier.
 Used in larger-scale operations with trays typically 4-8 square feet and a
0.5-4 inch depth.
o Drying Process:
 It’s a batch process (not continuous), suitable for pharmaceutical use
where small batches are common.
 Direct heating is mostly used with air circulation to ensure uniform
drying.
o Energy Sources:
 Steam or electricity preferred to avoid contamination. Steam is more cost-
effective than electricity.

Vacuum Shelf Dryers

 Purpose:
o Ideal for drying heat-sensitive materials (e.g., penicillin) and for applications
requiring solvent recovery.
 How It Works:
o Operates under vacuum to lower pressure, which allows water to evaporate at
lower temperatures.
 o Heat is supplied through steam or hot water in hollow shelves.
o Drying time can be long, often ranging from 12 to 48 hours.
 Advantages:
o Effective for low-temperature drying and oxygen-sensitive materials.

Freeze Dryers (Lyophilization)

 Purpose:
o Used for materials that are sensitive to heat and oxygen, like vaccines,
antibiotics, and blood plasma.
 Principle:
o Freeze drying is based on sublimation, where ice (frozen water) turns directly
into vapor without melting.
o Operates below the triple point of water (0.0099°C and 4.579 mm Hg).
 Process Requirements:
1. Positive Vapor Pressure: The vapor pressure of water on the material’s surface
must be higher than the surrounding air to drive sublimation.
2. Heat Source: Provides necessary heat for sublimation while keeping the
temperature controlled.
3. Moisture Removal: Evaporated moisture must be continuously removed.
 Components of Freeze Dryers:
1. Drying Chamber: Designed for batch operations, similar to vacuum dryers.
2. Vacuum Source: Pumps or steam ejectors create and maintain the vacuum.
3. Heat Source: Supplies energy via conduction or radiation.
4. Vapor-Removal System: Removes moisture using condensers, desiccants, or
pumps.
 Benefits:
o Freeze-dried products are stable, easy to reconstitute with water, and maintain
their viability
Stages of Freeze Drying
 1. Pre-Freezing: Material is frozen, typically below −20°C, to prevent foaming.
2. Vacuum: Rotary or ejector pumps reduce pressure for sublimation.
3. Primary Drying: Heat is applied to remove unbound water through sublimation.
4. Secondary Drying: Removes remaining bound water by raising temperature (up to 50°C)
or using desiccants.

Continuous Drying Systems

 Tunnel Dryers:
o Trucks (carts) loaded with material are moved progressively through a drying
tunnel.
o Uses convection (sometimes radiant) heat and is semi-continuous as each truck is
loaded/unloaded individually.
 Conveyor Dryers:
o Truly continuous, with an endless belt replacing trucks, providing uninterrupted
loading/unloading.
o Ideal for large-scale material handling and offers improved efficiency over tunnel
dryers.

Drum Dryers
 Design:
o Consists of one or two rotating, steam-heated drums.
o Material is applied to the drum surface, which dries by simple evaporation.
o The dried layer is scraped off by a scraper.
 Usage:
o Common for thermolabile materials needing a short drying time.
o Made from stainless or chrome-plated steel to avoid contamination.
o Often used for drying suspensions, e.g., kaolin or zinc oxide.

Moving-Bed Systems
  Vacuum Tumble Dryer:
o Double Cone Vacuum Dryer:
 Rotates under vacuum, drying materials uniformly and rapidly.
 Typical rotation speed is 6–8 rpm, with heat supplied by a heated jacket.
 Effective for granules, reducing drying time significantly (e.g., 2-4 hours
vs. 18-24 in ovens).
 Not suitable for waxy solids, which may aggregate.
 Pan Dryer:
o Used for small batches, often pastes or slurries.
o Consists of a jacketed pan with rotating plows that scrape and mix the material to
ensure even drying.
o Can operate under vacuum or atmospheric pressure, allowing solvent recovery in
vacuum mode.
1. Rotary Dryer
 Description: The rotary dryer is a modified version of a tunnel dryer. It has a rotating
cylinder that dries particles by moving them opposite to a flow of hot air.
 How it Works:
o Rotation: The cylinder rotates, which turns over the material, so each particle is
exposed to the air, drying it individually rather than as a large pile.
o Slope: The cylinder is slightly sloped, which helps the material move from the
entrance to the exit, allowing for a continuous drying process.
o Baffles/Flights: These are small internal blades that help flip the material as it
moves, increasing the drying rate by exposing more surfaces.
 Advantages:
o Continuous drying with minimal clumping.
o Suitable for materials that need constant movement.

2. Turbo-tray Dryer
 Description: This dryer has a series of rotating trays in a vertical stack, creating a
"moving bed" that dries materials continuously.
  How it Works:
o Tray Stack: Trays rotate slowly (0.1 to 1.0 rpm) with heated air blown over them
by fans in the center of the stack.
o Material Movement: Wet material enters at the top and is spread by a wiper.
After each tray completes nearly one full rotation, the material drops through
slots onto the tray below.
o Repeat Process: Material moves down each tray until it reaches the bottom,
where it exits as dried product.
 Advantages:
o New surfaces are constantly exposed to air, making drying faster than tunnel
dryers.
o The continuous process reduces drying time and increases efficiency.

3. Fluidized-bed Dryer
 Description: This dryer creates a "fluidized" (boiling-like) effect in the particles by
pushing air upwards through them. This effect makes drying faster and more efficient.
 How it Works:
o Air Flow: Air flows upward at a speed that partially suspends (fluidizes) the
particles, making them mix well and dry evenly.
o Mixing Motion: The particles continuously move and mix, allowing each one to
be surrounded by drying air, which speeds up the drying.
o Temperature Control: Air temperature and speed can be adjusted, so heat-
sensitive materials don’t get damaged.
 Types:
o Vertical Fluidized-bed Dryer: Suitable for batch drying; air flows from the
bottom, drying material in a chamber.
o Horizontal Vibrating Conveyor Dryer: Best for larger-scale drying; materials are
fluidized and conveyed horizontally by vibrations.
 Advantages:
o Uniform temperature and fast drying.
o Good for drying granular materials, especially for tablet granulations.
 o Efficient for pharmaceutical products, offering better thermal efficiency and
shorter drying time than tray dryers.

4. Spray Dryer
 Description: This dryer is unique as it only dries liquid materials (like solutions or
slurries) by spraying them as droplets into a hot air stream. The droplets dry quickly,
turning into fine powder.
 How it Works:
o Atomization: The liquid feed is broken into tiny droplets by atomizers, which can
be pneumatic, pressure nozzles, or spinning discs, each suited to different
viscosities.
o Heated Air: Hot air dries the droplets, evaporating the liquid quickly before
droplets reach the chamber walls.
o Solid-Gas Separator: Once dried, the powder is separated from the gas using a
cyclone separator.
 Components:
o Feed System: Delivers the liquid to the atomizer.
o Atomizers: Break the liquid into droplets.
o Heated Air System: Provides the hot air required for drying.
o Drying Chamber: Holds the air and droplets.
o Separator and Collector: Collects the powder and removes exhaust air.
 Pharmaceutical Uses:
o Drying Heat-Sensitive Materials: Rapid drying prevents damage to sensitive
materials.
o Enhancing Flow and Density: Produces spherical particles, which improve flow
for tablets and capsules.
o Encapsulation: Can encapsulate flavors or oils, useful for taste masking, stability,
and controlled release.

5. Spray Congealing
 Description: A method similar to spray drying, but it uses cold air to solidify (congeal)
particles coated in molten material, like waxes.
 How it Works:
o Material Preparation: Particles are mixed with a molten coating material.
o Cold Air: Droplets are sprayed into cold air, causing them to solidify quickly.
 Advantages:
o Useful for taste masking and creating sustained-release formulations.
o High ratio of coating agent to material, so it’s suited for creating thicker coatings.