UNDERSTANDING

CELL BIOLOGY

“ An Illustrated Guide “

Prepared by: Zimen Saja Riyas

Course: Access to Health Science
Instructor: Toni Anne Milnes
Submission date: 02.09.2024
Resubmission
 UNDERSTANDING DIFFERENT FEATURES OF LIVING CELLS

There are certain characteristics that are unique to living cells that are the basic structures of living organisms and
therefore it is important to understand the characteristics. Such properties are cellular organization, metabolism, growth
and development, reproduction, response to stimuli and homeostasis.

Cellular Organization:
It’s important to realize that cells are very complex structures which contain various components or organelles that have
specific functions that are vital for the cell. For instance, the plasma membrane controls the flow of materials between the
cell and the external environment in order to ensure the cell’s internal environment is constant (National Human Genome
Research Institute, 2020). Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic cells that contain genetic materials within a nucleus and
other structures such as mitochondria that are involved in the process of cellular respiration in order to produce energy
(OpenStax, 2023).

Metabolism:
Cells perform a large number of chemical reactions called metabolism which is vital for existence of life. Metabolism is the
sum of all chemical that transpires in an organism and includes the catabolic processes that break down molecules in order
to release energy and the anabolic processes that synthesize new molecules from simple building blocks (Biology Online,
2022). This energy is used in many cellular processes which include formation of biomolecules, cell motility and formation
of cellular structures.

Growth and Reproduction:

It is worth mentioning that one of the main properties of living cells is their capability to grow and replicate. The growth
of cells is achieved through the process of forming new cell structures as well as increasing the size of the cell.
Reproduction is a biological process that takes place through the process of cell division and it comes in two types namely
mitosis which results in the formation of two new daughter cells and meiosis which results in the formation of gametes
with half the number of chromosomes (Genome. gov, 2021). Stem cells are a special type of cell that have the capability of
dividing and forming various specialized cell types which are involved in development, tissue repair and regeneration
(Stem Cell Information, 2020).

Response to Stimuli:
There are different ways through which cells can be able to detect and respond to changes in their environment. For
example, nerve cells (neurons) work to electrical and chemical stimuli and immune cells work in response to pathogens
(National Institutes of Health, 2022). This is very crucial for life since it enables cells to regulate themselves in accordance
to the surrounding environment and keep a balance.

Homeostasis:
Homeostasis means the ability of cells to keep internal environment constant despite changes in the external
environment. Some of the elements that are controlled are the pH, temperature and the ions present in the
solution (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2023). Homeostatic processes are fundamental to cellular function which
enables cells to perform metabolism and maintain the health of the organism.

In conclusion, it could be stated that the living cells are complex structures that are capable of metabolism,
growth and reproduction, response to stimuli and homeostasis. Such features highlight the fact that cells are
versatile structures, which are at the foundation of all living organisms.
 CELL STRUCTURE

Prokaryotic cells are simple and relatively small in size as compared to the eukaryotic cells and are also likely to be found
between zero. 1 to 5. 0 micrometers in length. They have no well defined nuclear structure; their chromosomal material is
known as nucleoid which is not enclosed within a membrane at all (NCBI, 2021). Bacterial cells do not contain membrane
bound organelles which are present in eukaryotic cells and include mitochonria and the endoplasmic reticulum. Bacteria
and archaea are the two The two most common forms of prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea.

For example, Eukaryotic cells are large and complex than Prokaryotic cells and their size ranges from 10 to 100
micrometers. These have a true nucleus therefore the hereditary material of their plan is enclosed by a nuclear membrane
(OpenStax, 2023). There are several small membrane bound structures present inside the eukaryotic cell which has specific
functions to carry out within the cell; these organelles include Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Some of the organisms that fall under the category of Eukaryotes include plants, animals, fungi and protist.

Genetic Material:
Prokaryotic cells possess simple genetic material and these are in the form of 1 or circular DNA and the plasmids which is a
small loop of DNA (NCBI, 2021). However, the prokaryotic cells have circular chromosomes within the nucleus while the
eukaryotic cells have multiple linear chromosomes and each chromosome is made of DNA wrapped around histones
proteins (National Human Genome Research Institute [NHGRI], 2020).

Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction is characterized by formation of two identical daughter cells in the process of cell division as well as
replication of genetic material in prokaryotic cells through a process known as binary fission (Genome. Gov, 2022). In
eukaryotic cells the asexual reproduction is mitosis while the sexual kind is meiosis that leads to formation of gametes
(OpenStax, 2023).

Cell Walls:
Most of the Prokaryotic cells have a strong outer covering known as the cell wall that is mainly made of peptidoglycan
(Microbiology Society, n. D. ). Out of all the eukaryotic cells, only plant and fungus cells contain such structure; the cell
wall of plant is made up of cellulose whereas that of fungi is chitin instead of peptidoglycan. Animal cells however, do not
have one structure known as cell wall which can be found in plant cells (OpenStax, 2023).

THE EFFECTS OF VIRUS ON PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Viruses are a type of organism which has the ability to replicate only in the presence of a host cell. When a virus infects a
prokaryotic cell, then such virus is known as bacteriophage whereby the infected cell is a bacterium. Bacteriophages bind
to bacterial cell surface and inject their genomic material into the host cell and the latter is compelled to manufacture more
phages, sometimes culminating in the death of the infected cell through lysis (Science Learning Hub, 2021).

In the eukaryotic cells, viruses gain entry into these cells by binding to specific receptors on the surface of the cell. After
entering the cell, the viral genetic material subverts the controlled of the cell to synthesize viral components rather than
normal cell products. This process can hinder the normal functioning of the cell leading to diseases in the host organism
such as influenza, HIV or COVID 19 as per CDC (2021).
 COMPARISON

Although both the prokaryotic and the eukaryotic cells are capable of being infected by viruses, the effect is not the same
due to the structural variation. Prokaryotic cells, because of their relatively simple structure, may undergo lysis upon viral
infection and the cell is destroyed shortly (Science Learning Hub, 2021). As opposed to the prokaryotic cells which are
relatively simple and can be easily defeated by the virus, the eukaryotic cells can take longer to die post infection but the
virus can lead to various complications in the host organism and may result in chronic diseases or severe diseases (CDC,
2021).

Hence, it can be said that prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are quite diverse in their structure, genetic material and
reproduction. Some of these cells are lysed to benefit the viruses while others’ functions are interfered with, a condition
that may result in diseases affecting eukaryotic cells.

DESCRIBE THE SUB CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS AND THE

ORGANELLES PRESENT IN IT.

EThe eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure that is, they have several organelles that have specific roles to play in
the cell. Some of the other structures present in the eukaryotic cells are nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi complex, lysosomes and ribosomes. All the above mentioned organelles are very important in a cell and have specific
functions that enable it to carry out its activities.

Nucleus:
Nucleus is the largest organelle in eukaryotic cells and it is the control center of the cell which contains the cell’s genetic
information in the form of DNA. The nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear envelope which is made of two membranes and the
nuclear pores control the movement of substances in and out of nucleus (ScienceDirect, 2023). Within the nucleus, the
nucleolus synthesises ribosomes which are then transported to the cytoplasm to play a part in protein synthesis (National
Center for Biotechnology Information [NCBI], 2022).

Mitochondria:
In light of this, mitochondria are commonly known as the ‘power houses’ of the cell given their function in generation of
energy by means of cellular respiration. These organelles are bounded by two membranes; the inner membrane has
infoldings called cristae thus enhancing the surface area that can be used to produce energy (National Human Genome
Research Institute [NHGRI], 2023). Mitochondria are responsible for transforming glucose and oxygen into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s energy source. Also, the mitochondria have their own set of genetic material and it is passed
on from the mother (Science Learning Hub, 2023).

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

The endoplasmic reticulum is a system of membranes that is involved in protein and lipid synthesis. It comes in two
forms: There are two types of ER; rough ER and smooth ER. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has got ribosomes on it which
is why it is given this name and is mainly involved in the synthesis of proteins which are to be secreted or are to be utilized
in cell membrane (OpenStax, 2023). The smooth ER which is devoid of ribosomes is involved in lipid synthesis,
detoxification of drugs and poison and in calcium storage (ScienceDirect, 2023).

Golgi Apparatus:
The Golgi apparatus, also referred to as the Golgi complex, can be termed as the “post office” of the cell as it processes,
sorts and packages proteins and lipids for delivery to other parts of the cell or outside the cell. Proteins and lipids that are
manufactured in the ER are then trans-ported to Golgi apparatus where they are processed further like glycosylation
(ScienceDirect, 2023). The Golgi then sorts these molecules and places them in vesicles which are then sent to their
destinations which include the cell membrane or lysosomes (NCBI, 2022).

Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are often referred to as ‘garbage disposal’ of the cell because these are membrane bound organelles that are
involved in breaking down waste products and cellular debris. They serve as the cell’s digestive system which eliminates
old or damaged cell debris and pathogens including bacteria (Science Learning Hub, 2023). The enzymes present within
lysosomes are produced in rough endoplasmic reticulum and are further processed in the Golgi apparatus before being
transported to lysosomes (OpenStax, 2023).
RRibosomes:

Ribosomes are organelles that synthesize proteins and can be thus described as molecular machines. These can either be
located in the cytoplasm which is also known as free ribosomes or be bound to the rough ER. It is composed of two
subunits; the large one which is responsible for scanning the mRNA and the small one which synthesizes polypeptide
chains, which in turn fold into proteins (NHGRI, 2023). These proteins carry out different roles such as catalytic roles,
structural roles, or as signaling proteins within a cell (NCBI, 2022).

Cytoskeleton:

The cytoskeleton is a complex of protein filaments which has a structural function, gives a shape to a cell and is involved
in its motility. It is composed of three types of filaments: The three types of filaments which make up the cytoskeleton
include microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Microfilaments which are made of actin are used in
muscle contraction and cell motility (OpenStax, 2023). Intermediate filaments offer structural framework to the cell
whereas microtubules containing tubulin plays a role in cell division, transportation within the cell and formation of cilia
and flagella (ScienceDirect, 2023).

Plasma Membrane:

It consists of a phospholipid bilayer through which the cell is surrounded and thus, separates the internal from the
external environment. It is semi permeable in nature which means that it allows the passage of some molecules into or out
of the cell so as to regulate for homeostasis (NHGRI, 2023). The plasma membrane has protein that help in signlling,
transport and cells interaction with the extracellular matrix which is the (OpenStax, 2023).

In conclusion, eukaryotic cell is complex with different compartments each with a specific role in the maintenance of the
cell. It is important to note that every organelle plays a part in the overall function of the cell whether it is for producing
energy, synthesis of proteins, removing the waste products, or providing structural component.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE, WITH EMPHASIS ON THE PROCESSES

OF TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS AND WASTES

The cell membrane that is also referred to as the plasma membrane is one of the most important structures that are
involved in the maintenance of cellular equilibrium through the control of the movement of substances in and out of the
cell. It consists of a double layer of phospholipids with proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrates as components forming a
semi-permeable membrane. This selective permeability is critical in regulating the internal milieu of the cell and permit
the uptake of nutrients as well as the dismissal of waste products.

Structure of the Cell Membrane:

Phospholipid bilayer is the basic unit of cell membrane where the polar hydrophilic head is in contact with both the inside
and the outside environment while the non-polar hydrophobic tail is located in the interior of the membrane. This kind of
arrangement enables formation of a semi-permeable membrane through which only particular molecules can pass through
while others are prevented from doing so (National Center for Biotechnology Information [NCBI], 2022). There are
proteins which are integrated in the membrane and they have functions such as transport, signaling and formation of the
cell structure. Cholesterol molecules that are embedded in the bilayer assist in maintaining the flexibility of the membrane
while at the same time It provides structural integrity to the membrane and helps in maintaining its fluidity depending on
the environmental conditions (OpenStax, 2023).
Transport Mechanisms Across the Cell Membrane

There are four main ways that substances are able to pass through the cell membrane, namely passive transport, active
transport and bulk transport.

1. Passive Transport:
Passive transport is the process in which molecules are transported across a membrane and against their concentration
gradient without the expenditure of energy. There are three main types of passive transport:There are three main types of
passive transport:

Simple Diffusion: Gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide which are small and non polar can easily pass through the
phospholipid bilayer. This process is Tikhanov (2023) explains that this process occurs due to the concentration gradient
that transports substances from the area of high concentration to the area of low concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion: Molecules with larger size or with a polar nature like glucose and ions cannot easily cross the
membrane and thus need transport proteins. Channel proteins and carrier proteins help in the transport of these
substances without the need of energy, but in the direction of the concentration gradient (Khan Academy, 2023).

Osmosis: Osmosis is a special type of facilitated diffusion which involve movement of water molecules only. Water also
transports across the membrane through channel protein known as aquaporins, from an area with low solute
concentration to an area with a high concentration of solute in a bid to balance out the solute concentration on both sides
of the membrane (NCBI, 2022).

2. Active Transport:
Transport may be classified as either passive or active transport; passive transport is the movement of substances along
the concentration gradient while active transport involves movement of substances against the concentration gradient and
this does not occur without the use of energy. This mechanism enables the cells to achieve and sustain concentrations of
ions and other substances which could not be realizible through passive transport.

Sodium-Potassium Pump:One of the examples of active transport is sodium-potassium pump that transports sodium
ions out of cell and potassium ions into the cell even against the concentration gradient. This pump is a part of the cell
membrane which is crucial with regards to the generation of the electrochemical gradient needed for functions such as
nerve impulses and muscle contractions (ScienceDirect, 2023).

Endocytosis and Exocytosis:These are ways of transport in large amount where the cell membrane surrounds large
particles or fluids to take them in (endocytosis) or to release them out (exocytosis). This process is important in nutrient
uptake and waste removal due to the fact that it helps the cell to handle a large number of substances at any one time
(OpenStax, 2023).

Role in Nutrient Intake and Waste Removal:

The selective permeability of cell membrane is very important in allowing nutrition uptake and waste disposal. Other
nutrients like glucose, amino acids and ions are vital for cell activities and the cell membrane plays an important role in
the transportation of these substances through the membrane either through passive or active transport (Khan Academy,
2023). At the same time, other unwanted substances like carbon dioxide and urea have to be otherwise they will
accumulate and cause toxicitiy. The membrane helps in the removal of these waste through diffusion, active transport and
exocytosis in order to keep the internal environment of the cell (NCBI, 2022).

Altogether, it is possible to state that the cell membrane plays an important role in controlling the cell’s environment. Its
selective permeability and various transport mechanisms provide that only the required nutrients are absorbed while the
waste products are eliminated hence maintaining the cells’ normal functions.
 HOW ANIMAL CELL UTILIZE THE NUTRIENTS IN ORDER TO PRODUCE ENERGY THAT
IS NEEDED FOR DEVELOPMENT, LOCOMOTION, AND REPRODUCTION

The nutrients are chiefly metabolised in animal cells through cellular respiration which takes place in the mitochondria.
Cell respiration is a process through which energy in nutrients with special focus on glucose is utilised to synthesize ATP
the energy currency of cells. This ATP is then used to fuel various cell activities that are necessary for cell growth,
movement as well as cell division.

Cell Respiration and Energy Production: This is what may be followed:

Cell respiration can be broken down into three main stages: These include glycolysis, citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) and
oxidative phosphorylation.

1. Glycolysis:
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and is the initial process of glucose decomposition. In the glycolysis process one
glucose molecule is broken down into two pyruvates; this process results in producing two ATP and two NADH molecules
(OpenStax, 2023).

2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):

The pyruvate formed in glycolysis is transported into the mitochondria where it is converted to Acetyl CoA which is then
fed into the Citric Acid Cycle. In this cycle, the acetyl-CoA is oxidised and more electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) are
produced and two ATPs are produced for each glucose molecule. The waste product that is produced is carbon dioxide
(National Center for Biotechnology Information [NCBI] 2022).

3. Oxidative Phosphorylation:
The last one is oxidative phosphorylation which takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Here the NADH and
FADH2 generated in the previous steps pass the electrons to the transport chain that helps in the generation of a high
number of ATP molecules, approximately 34 ATP molecules per glucose molecule through a process called chemiosmosis.
Oxygen is the last electron receiver and the product of the reaction is water (National Human Genome Research Institute
[NHGRI], 2021).

UTILIZATION OF ATP FOR CELLULAR PROCESSES

1. Growth:
ATP is the energy source necessary for processes involved in macromolecule formation such as proteins, nucleic acids and
lipids that are necessary structures of the cell. For instance, in the process of protein synthesis, ATP is used to link the
amino acids together by peptide bonds (Biology Online, 2022).

2. Movement:
As ATP is required for cell movement, it is also required for muscle contraction and the transport of organelles in cells.
For instance, in muscle cells, ATP combines with myosin to allow it to attach on actin filaments that consequently results
in muscle contraction (OpenStax, 2023). Also, ATP is used in the movement of cilia and flagella, these are structures that
are used in some cells in movement (NCBI, 2022).

3. Cell Division:
This energy molecule is also needed in order to carry out the processes of mitosis and cytokinesis in cell division. ATP is
used in order to form the mitotic spindle which is involved in the process of dividing chromosomes during cell division
(NHGRI, 2021). It also converts chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell and also formation of the contractile ring that is
involved in the process of cytokinesis that splits the cell into two.
Examples of Cells Using Energy: To the best of my knowledge

Muscle Cells: Muscle cells especially the skeletal muscle cells require a large amount of ATP for contraction and thereby
movement. If the ATP is not enough, muscles cannot work and this results in muscle fatigue as seen in OpenStax (2023).

Nerve Cells: The sodium-potassium pump which is essential for the transmission of nerve impulses is used by neurons
with the help of ATP. This pump always moves sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell and this is a process that
cannot occur without the use of ATP(NCBI, 2022).

Epithelial Cells: Some of the cells lining the intestines use ATP to actively transport nutrients into the bloodstream
through such mechanisms as the sodium glucose co-transporter which is an ATP dependent transport protein (Biology
Online, 2022).

Lastly, it is important to note that animal cells are able to use nutrients in a process called cellular respiration to create
ATP in order to perform activities such as growth, movement and cell division. The efficient production and utilization of
ATP is very crucial in ensuring that all the functions that are essential for life are well supported.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: THE PROCESS OF BUILDING SPECIFIC PROTEINS IN CELLS

AProtein synthesis is a vital biological process in which individual cell build proteins of a particular type. This process
involves two main stages: Transcription and translation are two processes that are very vital in the building of proteins,
where each and every amino acid has to be in the right order.

Transcription: This process is generally referred to as transcription and it involves the transformation of DNA to mRNA.

It is the initial part of protein synthesis that takes place in the nucleus of the cell. In transcription a particular part of the
DNA which contain the gene of interest is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA). This process start with the binding of
the enzyme RNA polymerase to the specific promoter region of the gene. The RNA polymerase then denature the DNA
double helix and create a complementary mRNA strand by pairing RNA nucleotides with their corresponding DNA bases
(adenine for uracil, cytosine for guanine, guanine for cytosine and thymine for adenine) (OpenStax, 2023).

The newly created mRNA is a single stranded molecule of the gene which transports the genetic information from the
nucleus to the cytoplasm where the next process of protein synthesis occurs. However, before the mRNA exits the nucleus,
it gets modified where it gets a cap at the 5’ end, a poly-A tail at the other end and the removal of the non-coding
sequences known as introns. This processing protect the mRNA and makes it ready for the translation as it is (National
Human Genome Research Institute [NHGRI], 2021).

Translation:

Translation is said to be the process through which the mRNA sequence is used to synthesize a protein. This happens in
the cytoplasm whereby the ribosomes that are responsible for protein synthesis are involved. The ribosomes translate the
mRNA sequence in a set of three nucleotides which is referred to as codons. Triacontonucleotides are composed of three
nucleotides known as codons, wherein each codon codes for an amino acid or a stop signal that signals the ribosome to stop
the synthesis of proteins (Biology Online, 2022).

tRNA molecules that are carrying specific amino acids recognize their anticodon (a three-base pair sequence on tRNA
which is complementary to mRNA codon) with the codon on mRNA strand. While moving along the mRNA the amino
acids carried by the tRNAs are linked by peptide bonds and form a growing polypeptide chain (NCBI, 2022).

It goes on until the ribosome reaches a stop codon, there is no tRNA molecule that matches the stop codon. Instead, release
factors attach to the ribosome and lead to the polypeptide chain which is being synthesized to be released. The polypeptide
chain then takes its specific three dimensional conformation, hence becoming a protein that is functional in the cell
(OpenStax, 2023).
 Importance of Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is of great importance in any cell and its existence. The proteins are involved in several cellular functions
such as acting as enzymes in the metabolic reactions, giving shape to cells and controlling gene expression. For instance,
enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions while the structural proteins include collagen that offers strength
to tissues that connect (Biology Online, 2022).

However, the process of protein synthesis is very important and the accuracy of the process determines the health of the
cell. Mistakes that occur during the translating of the DNA to RNA or RNA to protein can cause the formation of proteins
that do not work properly and may interfere with normal cellular activities and may results to diseases (NHGRI, 2021).

In conclusion protein synthesis is a multi-step process that is well coordinated in order to produce proteins which are
required by cells for their function. This is so that proteins may be synthesised and assembled in the correct manner and
at the right time to maintain cellular and organismal health.

HOW ANIMAL CELLS USE NUTRIENTS TO PROVIDE ENERGY FOR GROWTH,

MOVEMENT, AND CELL DIVISION

Cell Respiration and Energy Production:

Cell respiration can be broken down into three main stages: These include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle
and the oxidative phosphorylation.

1. Glycolysis:
Glycolysis is the first process of glucose breakdown and it takes place in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis involves the breakdown
of glucose a six carbon sugar into two molecules of pyruvate a three carbon compound, and in this process two ATP are
produced and two NADH are produced (OpenStax, 2023).

Examples of Cells Using Energy:

Muscle Cells: Muscle cells and specially those of skeletal muscles, need ATP in order to contract and move. When ATP
levels are low muscles cannot contract and this results in conditions such as muscle fatigue (OpenStax, 2023).

Nerve Cells: Neurons rely on ATP in order to perpetually function the sodium-potassium pump which plays a key role in
the transmission of nerve impulses. This pump constantly moves sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell and to
do so it uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (NCBI, 2022).

Epithelial Cells: It is the cells that line the intestines that use ATP to transport nutrients into the cells using means such
as the sodium glucose co transporter which requires ATP to do its work (Biology Online, 2022).

Therefore, we can state that animal cells use the process of cellular respiration to transform nutrients into ATP which is
necessary for important cellular activities including growth, movement and cell division. The efficient production of ATP
and the usage of ATP is very important in the functions of life.
 UNDERSTANDING CELL GROWTH AND DIVISION

1. Differentiation of Embryonic Stem Cells into Tissue Specific Lineages

All the different types of cells which are required for the development of different organs in the body are derived from
embryonic stem cells which are pluripotent in nature. Such stem cells are pluripotent and when implanted in the body,
they multiply and specialise to form all the tissues and organs of the body during embryonic development.

First, stem cells divide in an asymmetric manner when one of the cells is still a stem cell and the other becomes a
specialized cell. This process is controlled by different signals in the cellular setting such as growth factors and
transcription factors which control the fate of the cell (Alberts et al. , 2015).

With further differentiation, the cell transit through different stages of pluripotency and eventually become lineage
committed with the potential to form organs of the body through the three germ layers namely ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm. For instance, the ectoderm gives rise to the skin and the nervous system, mesoderm gives rise to muscle and
bone while the endoderm forms the lining of the gut and other internal organs.

2. Importance of Interphase in the Cell Cycle

IThe interphase is the part of the cell cycle which precedes the actual cell division. It is very vital in order to make sure
that each and every daughter cell gets the correct and complete set of genetic material. Interphase consists of three stages:
The phases identified are G1 (gap 1), S (synthesis), and G2 (gap 2).

G1 phase: The cell enlarges and produces proteins and organelles among other structures.
S phase: The cell copy the DNA, so that both of the new cells will have exactly the same number of chromosomes.
G2 phase: The cell further divides and get ready for the process of cell division, it also checks for the DNA damage if any
and repair it if required (Cooper, 2000).

It is important because it prepares all the require structures in the cell for the process of mitosis which is the process of
cell division. This is because if the interphase is not well carried out then the cells will continue dividing with incomplete
or damaged DNA which is a source of mutation and can be dangerous.
3. Factors which trigger cell division

There are many factors that can trigger cell division. Within the cell, factors that affect the cell’s decision for division
include cell size, DNA status and nutrient supply. The cell must also have to attain a specific size and accumulate enough
nutrients that will enable the new daughter cells to grow and divide.

Exogenous signals that may cause cell division include factors produced by other cells, for instance, growth factors. These
signals interact with the receptors located on the cell surface and then stimulate a series of signaling pathways that results
to the activation of cyclin dependent kinases or CDKs. CDK’s regulate the movement of the cell through the various stages
of the cell cycle (Morgan, 2007).

Other factors that may cause cell division include, hormones, mechanical stress and damage to other tissues which in turn
stimulate cell division in a bid to replace the damaged tissue.

4. Receiving Genetic Information by Daughter Cells

In mitosis, the process of cell division, the cell makes sure that the set of genetic information will be equally divided to the
two daughter cells. This process includes the accurate replication of chromosomes in the S phase of interphase, and then
separation of the chromosomes into two daughter cells in mitosis.

It is important to note that during mitosis the chromosomes undergo a process called condensation whereby they become
compact and are positioned at the middle of the cell at a stage known as metaphase. Spindle fibers then attach to the
centromere of each chromosome and pull both sister chromatids to opposite pole of the cell during anaphase. Last of all,
during the telophase, the cell membrane contracts and thus forms two new daughter cells, each of which contains an
identical set of chromosomes as the parent cell (Alberts et al. , 2015).
 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING CANCER CELLS WITH NORMAL CELLS.

Comparing and Contrasting Cancer Cells with Normal Cells

Cancer cells and normal cells originate from similar cellular processes but exhibit significant differences in behavior,
structure, and function, leading to the uncontrolled proliferation characteristic of cancer.

1. Similarities Between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells

Basic Cell Structure: Both cancer cells and normal cells share fundamental cellular components, including a nucleus,
cytoplasm, cell membrane, and organelles like mitochondria and ribosomes. These structures are vital for maintaining
cellular functions, such as energy production, protein synthesis, and genetic regulation (Alberts et al., 2015).

Genetic Material: Both cell types contain DNA, the molecule responsible for encoding the genetic information required for
protein synthesis and cellular regulation. The core processes of DNA replication, transcription, and translation occur in
both normal and cancerous cells.

Cell Cycle: Cancer cells and normal cells both progress through the cell cycle, which consists of interphase (G1, S, G2) and
mitosis. In both cell types, this cycle governs cell growth and division, although its regulation differs markedly between
normal and cancerous cells.

2. Differences Between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells

Growth and Division: In normal cells, growth and division are tightly regulated by checkpoints within the cell cycle. These
checkpoints ensure the cell is ready to divide and that DNA has been accurately replicated (Cooper, 2000). In contrast,
cancer cells often bypass these regulatory mechanisms, leading to unchecked proliferation. This is frequently due to
mutations in genes that control the cell cycle, such as tumor suppressor genes (e.g., p53) and oncogenes (e.g., Ras)
(Hanahan & Weinberg, 2011).

Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death): Normal cells can undergo apoptosis, a programmed cell death mechanism that allows
the organism to remove damaged or unnecessary cells, maintaining tissue homeostasis. Cancer cells, however, often
acquire the ability to evade apoptosis, enabling them to survive and proliferate despite significant cellular damage or
abnormalities (Elmore, 2007).

Differentiation: Normal cells are typically fully differentiated, meaning they have developed a specific structure and
function appropriate to their role in the tissue or organ. Cancer cells, on the other hand, tend to be poorly differentiated or
undifferentiated, leading to more primitive, less specialized forms. This lack of differentiation, known as anaplasia,
contributes to their uncontrolled growth and ability to spread (Weinberg, 2014).

Cell Communication and Adhesion: Normal cells communicate with their environment and adhere to each other and the
extracellular matrix, helping to maintain tissue structure and function. Cancer cells often lose these abilities, allowing
them to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant organs (Alberts et al., 2015).

Angiogenesis: While normal cells can promote angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels) in a controlled manner to
supply oxygen and nutrients, cancer cells frequently stimulate abnormal angiogenesis to support their rapid growth. This
leads to the formation of irregular, leaky blood vessels that facilitate the spread of cancer cells (Folkman, 2002).

Immortality: Normal cells have a limited number of divisions, known as the Hayflick limit, due to the progressive
shortening of telomeres with each division. In contrast, many cancer cells activate the enzyme telomerase, which
maintains telomere length, allowing them to divide indefinitely and become "immortal" (Shay & Wright, 2011).