Q1. How solid materials are classified?

Answer: Solid materials are classified as follows:

Crystalline Materials: Material having atoms in specific order and they are perfectly arranged.
Amorphous Materials: Atoms are not in order or they are at random.
Semi-Crystalline: Atoms are perfectly arranged but for a short distance.

Materials

Semi-
Crystalline Amorphous
Crystalline

Q2. How materials are classified based on conductivity?

Answer: Conductors: Material having Free Charge Concentration greater that 1021 /cm3.
Semi-Conductors: Material having Free Charge Concentration between 106 /cm3 to 1021 /cm3.
Insulators: Material having Free Charge Concentration less than 106/cm3.

Materials

Semi-
Conductors Insulators
Conductors

Q3. Explain Band Theory and Band diagram.

Answer: Band Theory states that when multiple atoms combine together, their atomic orbitals
combine to form molecular orbitals, and these molecular orbitals form band of energy called as
valence band and conduction band.

• Valence band
The energy band that consists of valence electrons energy levels, is known as the valence
band. The valence band is present below the conduction band and the electrons of this band
are loosely bound to the nucleus of the atom.
• Conduction band
The energy band that consists of free electrons energy levels, is known as the conduction
band. For electrons to be free, external energy must be applied such that the valence
electrons get pushed to the conduction band and become free.
Valence Electrons: Electrons of outer most shell that don’t take part in conduction. These electrons
lie in valence band.
Free Electrons: Electrons that are free from atom and take part in conduction. These electrons lie
in conduction band.

Q4. Explain Band diagram of Conductors, Insulators and Semi-conductors.

Answer:
Conductors: Valence band and Conduction band are overlapped. Therefore, some valence
electrons become free and start conducting.

Semiconductors: Valence band and Conduction band have small energy gap called as forbidden
gap. The energy gap between valence band and conduction band is less than 3eV.
At 00k: there will not be any free electron.
As temperature increases, electrons jump from valence band to conduction band.
Insulators: The energy gap between valence band and conduction band is more than 3eV.

Q5. Explain Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors.

Answer:
1. Intrinsic Semiconductors:

An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its

extremely pure form. Common example of such semiconductors are pure germanium and silicon.
In pure semiconductors, electric conduction is due to the thermally generated electron hole
pairs.
2) Extrinsic Semiconductors:

Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent or dopant
has been added in extremely small amounts (about 1 part in 10) are called extrinsic or impurity
semiconductors.
The usual doping agents are:

 Pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons (arsenic, antimony, phosphorus)

or

 Trivalent atoms having three valence electrons (gallium, indium, aluminium, boron).
Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it donates or contributes one
electron to the conduction band of pure germanium. The trivalent atom, on the other hand, is
called acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the germanium atom.
Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can be subdivided
into two classes.
2a. N-type semiconductors:
When a pentavalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, N type semiconductor is obtained.
2b. P-type semiconductors:
When a trivalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, P type semiconductor is obtained.

Q6. What is a PN Junction Diode? Explain biasing and V-I characteristics of PN Junction
Diode.
Answer: When a P type semiconductor is connected back to back with an N type semiconductor,
the device formed is called as P-N Junction Diode.

 Biasing: The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode
is called biasing. External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods:
forward biasing or reverse biasing.
If the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. Under forward
biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery
whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery.
If the p-n junction diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. Under reverse
biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery
whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery.

 V-I Characteristics of Diode:

Forward Characteristics: When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative
voltage is applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If
this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for
silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current
will start to flow. This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the
junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics
curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and
then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown
below.

Reverse Characteristics: When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage
is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The
positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and
away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction
towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack
of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator and a high potential
barrier is created across the junction thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.
Q7. Explain Depletion layer in PN Junction.
Answer: When the p-type and the n-type materials are kept in contact with each other, the junction
between them behaves differently from either side of the material alone. The electrons and holes
are close to each other at the junction. According to coulomb’s law, there is a force between the
negative electrons and the positive holes. When the p-n junction is formed a few electrons from
the n-type diffuse through the junction and combines with the holes in the p-side to form negative
ions and leaves behind positive ions in the n-side. This results in the formation of the depletion
layer, which acts as the barrier and does not allow any further flow of electrons from the n region
to the p region.

Q8. Explain Half wave rectifier.

Answer: The basic circuit of a half-wave rectifier with a resistive load (but no filter circuit) is
shown in Fig. The alternating secondary voltage is applied to a diode connected in series with a
load resistor RL.
Working:

During the positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage, the diode D is forward-biased (ON)
and conducts. While conducting, the diode acts as a short-circuit so that circuit current flows and
hence, positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage is dropped across RL. It constitutes the output
voltage VL as shown in Fig. Waveform of the load voltage is also shown in Fig. It consists of
half-wave rectified sinusoids of peak value VLM.

During the negative input half-cycle, the diode is reverse-biased (OFF) and so, does not
conduct i.e. there is no current flow. Hence, there is no voltage drop across RL. In other words,
iL=0 and VL 0. Obviously, the negative input half-cycle is suppressed i.e. it is not utilized for
delivering power to the load. As seen, the output is not a steady dc but only a pulsating dc wave
having a ripple frequency equal to that of the input voltage frequency. This wave can be observed
by an oscilloscope connected across R L. When measured by a dc meter, it will show some
average positive value both for voltage and current. Since only one half-cycle of the input wave
is used, it is called a half-wave rectifier. It should be noted that forward voltage drop across the
diode has been neglected in the above discussion. We have, in fact, assumed an ideal diode
(having zero forward resistance and infinite reverse resistance)

Q9. Explain Center tapped full wave rectifier.

Answer: In this case, both half-cycles of the input are utilized with the help of two diodes working
alternately. For full-wave rectification, use of a transformer is essential (though it is optional for
half-wave rectification) The full-wave rectifier circuit using two diodes and a center-tapped
transformer shown in fig. The center-tap is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage reference
point.

Working:
When input ac supply is switched on, the ends M and N of the transformer secondary
become +ve and — ve alternately. During the positive half-cycle of the ac input, terminal M is
+ve, G is at zero potential and N is at —ve potential. Hence, being forward-biased, diode DI
conducts (but not D2 which is reverse-biased) and current flows along MDI CABG. As a result,
positive half-cycle of the voltage appears across RL. During the negative half-cycle, when terminal
N becomes +ve, thenD2 conducts (but not DI) and current flows along ND2CABG. So, we find
that current keeps on flowing through RL in the same direction (i.e. from A to B) in both half-
cycles of ac input. It means that both half cycles of the input ac supply are utilized as shown in
Fig. 55.6 (b). Also, the frequency of the rectified output voltage is twice the supply frequency. Of
course, this rectified output consists of a dc component and many ac components of diminishing
amplitudes.
Q10. Explain Bridge Rectifier.
Answer: It is the most frequently-used circuit for electronic dc power supplies. It requires four
diodes but the transformer used is not center-tapped and has a maximum voltage of V sm. The
circuit using four discrete diodes is shown in Fig.
Working:

During the positive input half-cycle, terminal M of the seconda1Y is positive and N is
negative. Diodes D1 and D3 become forward-biased (ON) whereas D2 and D4 are reverse-biased
(OFF). Hence, current flows along MEABCFN producing a drop across RI. During the negative
input half-cycle, secondary terminal N becomes positive and M negative. Now, D2 and D4 are
forward-biased. Circuit current flows along NFABCEM. Hence, we find that current keeps
flowing through load resistance RL in the same direction A B during both half-cycles of the ac
input supply. Consequently, point A of the bridge rectifier always acts as an anode and point C
as cathode. The output voltage across RL is as shown in Fig. Its frequency is twice that of the
supply frequency.

Q11. What is the need of filter? List different types of filters. Explain Capacitor Filter.
Answer: A circuit that converts a pulsating output from a rectifier into a steady dc level is known
as filter.
There are 4 types of filters:

• Capacitor Filter
• Inductor Filter
 • L-C filter
• C-L-C Filter or π Filter

Capacitor Filter: In this circuit, a suitable single capacitor C is connected across the rectifier
and in parallel with the load RL to achieve filtering action. This type of filter is known as
capacitor input Filter. During positive half cycle, diode conducts and capacitor charges to peak
value. During negative half cycle, diode turns off but capacitor discharges through load resistor
RL. The time constant of capacitor discharging is high due to load resistor. This cycle keeps
repeating.

Q12. Explain working of voltage regulator using Zener diode.

Answer: A voltage regulator is a component of the power supply that ensures a steady
constant voltage supply through all operational conditions. It regulates voltage during power
fluctuations and variations in loads.
 • A series resistance Rs is connected in series with the input voltage to limit the supply
current. This resistance is called as current limiting resistor.

• For proper operation, Vs must be greater than Vz.

• The input current is given by,
𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑧
Is = 𝑅𝑠

• The voltage across the load will be zener voltage.

VL = Vz

• And the current through the load resistance is,

𝑉𝐿
IL = 𝑅𝐿

• We know that input current is sum of zener current and load current,
Is = Iz + IL or Iz = Is - IL
Regulation with Varying input voltage:

• In this case load is kept constant and input supply is variable. It can be due to supply
fluctuation or ripples.

• If Vs increases, Is increases,
Hence Iz increases without affecting the load current.
 • The increased supply current will cause more voltage drop across Rs, thereby keeping the
load voltage constant.

• If Vs decreases, Is decreases, resulting is decrease in Iz.

• Voltage drop across Rs will decrease and Load voltage will be constant.
Regulation with Varying Loads:

• In this case supply voltage is kept constant and load resistance is variable. This case
represents a variable load.

• When RL decreases, IL increases, as a result Iz decreases without affecting the load current.
• As a result, voltage and current through Rs remains constant and thereby keeping the load
voltage constant.
• When RL increases, IL decreases, as a result Iz increases without affecting the load current.

• As a result, voltage and current through Rs remains constant and thereby keeping the load
voltage constant.

Q13. Explain the construction and applications of Schottky Diode.

Answer: The schottky diode is a type of metal – semiconductor junction diode, which is also
known as hot-carrier diode, low voltage diode or schottky barrier diode. The schottky diode is
formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. Schottky diode offers fast switching action
and has a low forward voltage drop. In a Schottky diode metals like platinum or aluminum are
used instead of P type semiconductors.

The V-I characteristics of Schottky diodes are very much similar to the PN junction diode.
Current is the dependent variable while voltage is the independent variable in the Schottky diode.
The forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode is low between 0.2 to 0.3 volts.
Applications:

 High power applications

 High frequency applications

Q14. Explain the construction and applications of Photo Diode.

Answer: A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric
current. They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes
are designed to work in reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon,
Germanium and Indium gallium arsenide.

A photodiode is subjected to photons in the form of light which affects the generation
of electron-hole pairs. If the energy of the falling photons (hv) is greater than the energy gap (Eg)
of the semiconductor material, electron-hole pairs are created near the depletion region of the
diode. The electron-hole pairs created are separated from each other before recombining due to the
electric field of the junction. The direction of the electric field in the diode forces the electrons to
move towards the n-side and consequently the holes move towards the p-side. As a result of the
increase in the number of electrons on the n-side and holes on the p-side, a rise in the electromotive
force is observed. Now when an external load is connected to the system, a current flow is observed
through it.
Q15. Explain the construction and applications of Light Emitting Diode.
Answer: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric
current flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes
emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks
the current in the reverse direction.

The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting element.

• Gallium Arsenide = Infrared radiation

• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide = Red or Yellow
• Gallium Phosphide = Red or green
• Gallium Nitride = Blue

Q16. Explain the construction and applications of Varactor Diode.

Answer: Varactor diode is a type of diode whose internal capacitance varies with respect to the
reverse voltage. It always works in reverse bias conditions and is a voltage-dependent
semiconductor device. It is also called as varicap diode.

The junction capacitance of a p-n junction diode is inversely proportional to the width of
the depletion layer. In other words, if the width of the depletion layer is less, then the capacitance
is more, and vice versa. So if we need to increase the capacitance of a varactor diode, the reverse
bias voltage should be decreased. It causes the width of the depletion layer to decrease, resulting
in higher capacitance. Similarly, increasing the reverse bias voltage should decrease the
capacitance. This ability to get different values of capacitances just by changing the voltage applied
is the biggest advantage of a varactor diode compared to a normal variable capacitor.
Applications:

• RF design
• Voltage controlled oscillators

Q16. Explain the construction and applications of Zener Diode.

Answer: A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor
device that is designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the voltage across the terminals
of a Zener diode is reversed, and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the
junction breaks down, and the current flows in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the
Zener Effect.

Zener Breakdown: When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the Zener
voltage, the electric field in the depletion region gets strong enough to pull electrons from their
valence band. The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the strong electric field of the
depletion region break free from the parent atom. At the Zener breakdown region, a small increase
in the voltage results in the rapid increase of the electric current.

Applications: Voltage Regulators