Fluid Mechanics-1 Lab Reports

Submitted By:
Fardeen Khan
Registration No:
2023-ME-03
Department:
Mechanical Engineering
Semester:
3rd Semester
Submitted To:
Dr. Syed Saqib

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

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1. Hydraulic bench
2. Flow through orifice
3. Free and forced vortices
4. Orifice and jet apparatus
5. Hydraulic bench
5. Hydraulic bench
6. Bernoulli apparatus
7. Impact of jet
8. Student projects
9. Meta centric height
10. Hydraulic ram body
11. Loss in pipes
12. Losses in bends
13. Reynold apparatus
14. Cavitation Demonstration Unit
 Experiment 1

Demonstration of different parts of Hydraulic Bench and measure flow

rate

1. Hydraulic Bench:
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and fluid mechanics it is involved in
majority of experiments to be conducted e.g., to find the value of co-efficient of velocity ‘C v’,
coefficient of discharge ‘Cd’ and contraction ‘C’ to study the characteristics of flow over notch, in
finding head losses through pipes, verification of Bernoulli’s theorem etc.
2. Parts of Hydraulic Bench:
(1) Sight Tube & Scale (2) Flow Control Valve
(3) Motor ON/OFF button (4) Tank Stilling Baffle
(5) Inlet Stilling Baffle (6) Pump & Motor
(7) Weir Carrier (8) Open channel
(9) Dump Valve & Dump Valve handle (10) Sump Tank
(11) Over Flow (12) Volume Measuring Tank
(13) Drain Valve (14) Side Wall Slots
(15) Quick Release Connector

The dimensions of Hydraulic bench are given below,

Height = 1m
Length = 1.13m
Width = 0.7m
Centrifuge Pump:
Centrifuge pump is used for drawing water form sump tank and supply it for performing
experiments.
Sump Tank:
The fluid used in hydraulic bench is stored in sump tank located at the bottom of hydraulic
bench. The water from the sump tank is supplied through pump. Sump tank has the capacity of 160
liters.
Vertical Pipes:
Water from the sump tank is supplied to the upper portion of bench through vertical
transparent pipe using a pimp.
Control Valves:
It is used to regulate the flow in the pipe i.e., to increase or decrease the inflow of water in
hydraulic bench.
Connector:
The connector allows flow for rapid substitution of accessories special purpose terminations
may be connected to pump supply by screwing connector. No hand tools are required for doing so.
Channels:
It is used in number of experiments .it provides passage in water for different
experiments.
Drain Valve:
Drain valve is used for discharging of water form sump tank.
Side Channels:
Side channels are provided to support the accessory on test.
Volumetric Tank:
Water discharging form the accessory (channels) on test is collected in a volumetric
measuring tank. This tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow rates.
 Stilling Baffle:
Volumetric measuring tank incorporates a stilling baffle inclined to reduce turbulence.
Scale and Tapping:
A sight tube and scale are connected to tapping in the base of the volumetric tank and glass an instantaneous
indication of water flow.
Dump Valve.
Dump valve is in the base of the volumetric tank opening the dump valve allows the entrained water to
return to the sump tank to recycling.
Actuator:
Dump valve is operated by a remote actuator lifting actuator opens the damp valve. When lifted and twisted
through 90°. The actuator will retain the dump valve in the open position.
Measuring Cylinder:
A measuring cylinder is provided to measuring a very small flow rater the cylinder is stored in the compartment
house e.g., the sump.
Starter:
Electrical supply to the pump motor is via a starter.

Apparatus Required:
 Hydraulic Bench
 A stopwatch
Procedure:
 Ensure that the Hydraulic Bench is placed on a level ground with locked wheels and that the sump tank of the
Hydraulic Bench is approximately full.
 Direct the water supply from Hydraulic Bench into the volumetric tank using appropriate connectors and hose.
 After closing the dump valve, turn on the main switch so that centrifugal pump runs to put the water in the
volumetric tank.
 We must note the time using a stopwatch when one liter of the water is filled.
 This time will vary if we change the control valve because it changes the speed of flow of water.
Calculation:
Volume of the water filled in the volumetric tank = 1 liter
= 0.001 m3
Time taken for one liter to be filled = 17.39 sec
Flow rate formula = volume/time
So,
Flow rate = Q = 0.001/17.39
Flow rate = Q = 5.75 x 10-5 m3s-1
In the same way,

Sr.no Volume Time taken. Flow rate

(m3) (sec) (m3/sec)

1 0.001 17.39 5.75 x 10-5

2 0.001 13.65 7.32 x 10-5
3 0.001 11.03 9.06 x 10-5

Experiment no 2
Demonstration of Validity of Bernoulli’s Equation by Applying it to Steady Flow of Water in
a Tapered Duct
1. Introduction
This experiment verifies Bernoulli's principle by observing how water flows through a gradually changing pipe. Bernoulli's
principle is a key concept in fluid mechanics that explains how energy is conserved in moving fluids. It connects pressure,
speed, and height in a fluid stream, and is commonly applied to incompressible and frictionless fluid flows.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Analytical Method
According to Bernoulli's principle, in a steady, frictionless, and incompressible fluid, the total energy of the fluid remains
constant along a streamline. This principle assumes no loss due to friction.
2.1.1. Derivation
In mathematical form it can be written as,
P1/ρ + v22/2 + gz1 = P2/ρ + v22/2 + gz2
Multiply the previous equation by ρ, we get,
P1 + ρv12/2 + ρgz1 = P2 + ρv22/2 + ρgz2
All the terms of the above equation have dimensions of force per unit area, so they are given the name of pressure.
P = static pressure
Ρv2/2 = dynamic pressure
ρgz = hydrostatic pressure
Dividing by ρg we will get,
P1/ρg + v12/ 2g + z1 = P2/ρg + v22/ 2g + z2
All terms of above equation represent energy per unit weight and have the dimensions of length, so all are given name of
head.
p/ρg = static head
v2 /2g = dynamic head
z = potential head
If z = constant (horizontal duct), then equation becomes
 P1/ρg + v12/ 2g = P2/ρg + v22/ 2g
Since potential head or potential energy is zero because the duct is horizontal due to which the height is zero, so the total
head is equal to the sum of static and dynamic head.

𝒗=𝑸/𝑨
Sum of static and dynamic head is clad stagnation head.

Q is volume flow rate measured by timed volume collection.

Its formula is given below:
Q = V/t
Where V is the volume of liquid usually measured in m3 and t is the time measured by the stopwatch. In this way, we can
calculate the flow rate and its unit is m3/s.
A is cross sectional area of flow. So, knowing A at different points, v can be calculated since by continuity equation for
incompressible flow, Q = constant

Static head h = P/ρg is measured by manometer directly

For a non-stagnation point, stagnation pressure/head is pressure/head that would be obtained if the flow at the given point is
decelerated to rest with frictionless adiabatic manner.
Dynamic head = v2/2g (measured by this formula)
Continuity equation:
For an incompressible fluid, conservation of the mass requires that volume is also conserved,
A1v1 = A2v2 (m3/s)
2.2 Model and Simulation [2]
Modern fluid mechanics relies heavily on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to validate Bernoulli's equation. CFD
simulations recreate fluid flow in various shapes, such as a tapered duct, and allow for the visualization of pressure,
velocity, and head distribution, confirming Bernoulli's principle.

Configuring a problem-solving model with CFD programs has three distinct steps:
 Create or import 3D geometric model;
 Creation of the mesh;
 Physical configuration of the problem.

In geometric modeling, topology simulation model is established in the initial phase of designing geometric. Pattern with
CAD programs [7-12]. At this stage the interaction interfaces are set solid and fluid main
Regions. For designing 3D geometric model of the device was used CATIA software [7, 8, 10].

Steps to create the network are:

Delimiting regions geometric model (Fig.), in which case the tube design is presented;
The choice of the working fluid which passes through tube design (Fig.) and the mesh area of the. Interior volume thereof
(Fig.) by generating area network, and generating network volume. Spatial. Discretization of the domain must obtain
seamless the network of spaces without introducing elements. Or cells with large.

2.2.1 Solving CFD

The boundary conditions defined; the simulation can be performed. The last step in obtaining the desired. Data post-
processing of data in the data sets necessary analyzes are taken from the simulation data. To solve differential equations
with partial derivatives, fundamental to conservation of angular momentum. And scalar quantities (mass, energy or
turbulence) CFD codes using an unobtrusive integration based on Service volume control (Fig.) The calculation method has
the advantage of reduced computational resource consumption and better. Approximates the entire volume control value,
which is given by the central node, but the second method. Calculates the integrated value of the particular area where it is
midway between the two nodes.
Finite volume method involves two levels of approximation values:
 Calculating surface volume control variables-interpolation;
 Calculating the volume and surface integrals-integration.

2.2.2 post-processing
Once a numerical simulation has reached a stable state, the final results are saved. This data includes information about the
state of each part of the model, like speed, density, pressure, and flow direction. To be useful, this data needs to be
organized and simplified. This process is called post-processing and allows us to compare the simulation results with other
simulations or real-world experiments. There are many ways to present this data, so choosing the right method is important.

2.2.3 Result
This paper presented a stand that allow teachers:
 total pressure measurement using a Pitot tube;
 measurement of the partial pressure;
 verification of Bernoulli’s law, the total pressure= ct.;
 highlighting the turbulent flow; determining dynamic pressure using Prandtl tube;

 measuring the flow rate of a fluid through a pipe (3%);

 Check continuity law, Sv=ct.(3%); the upward force-quality evidence.

With Autodesk CFD software were presented are the steps to simulate the flow inside the tube current, Checking
Bernoulli’s law. The equations are solved iteratively using complex algorithms incorporated into
2.3 Experimental Method [1]
2.3.1 Experimental setup
The experiment is conducted using a 50 mL capacity EISCO CH0233B Acrylic Burette with 0.1 mL graduations and a
PTFE. Stopcock mounted vertically to a sturdy table using a mini jeweler clamp the burette’s verticality was verified within
±0.1° of 0° with the free Bubble Level iOS app available for smart phones. Similarly, a free smartphone stopwatch was
used to directly measure the experimental drain time, which is later compared to theoretical results.

2.3.2 Procedure
The burette mounted as shown in Figure was overfilled with room temperature water and the stopcock valve closed. The
Valve was then opened, and water was bled out until the fluid Meniscus was level with the 0 mL volume mark, as shown in
Figure. The burette is sized so each 1 mL mark corresponds to 1 cm of water height. There are volume demarcations at 0.1
mL Intervals, which allow the water to be set repeatably at ± 0.05 mL Volumes corresponding to ± 0.05 cm uncertainty in
initial height. The burette markings increase from 0 mL to 50 mL as the fluid. Height drops indicating volume of liquid
delivered, and there is a dead volume at the burette’s bottom. Measured by a caliper (±0.1 cm accuracy), the stopcock valve
hole begins 3.9 cm below the 50 mL burette mark. Thus, the initial height of water in the Burette is taken as 53.9 ± 0.1 cm.
The burette inner diameter and Stopcock valve inner diameter were measured by caliper (±0.002 Cm accuracy) at 1.100 ±
0.002 cm and 0.130 ± 0.002 cm, respectively. The drain experiment was repeated 12 times; Enough to collect statistically
meaningful average and standard Deviation for drain time. Although a balance would not be used in the students’
Laboratory experiment, to generate visual representations for Typical draining experiments, an Ohaus SP602 digital balance
was placed under the water catchment beaker as shown in Figure. It was connected to a data acquisition computer running
Vernier Logger Pro 3 software set to collect accumulated mass Readings once per second. To calibrate and validate
conditions and equipment specific to the lab, the density of water used in the experiment was measured. The Ohaus SP602
balance Determined the mass of a corresponding measured volume of Water drained from the burette. The room
temperature and local Atmospheric pressure were 23.8°C and 101.1 kPa, respectively During this test, and the accepted
water density value under these Conditions is 0.99865 g/ml. The experimental density Measurement was 1.014 g/mL, an
error of 1.5% from the Accepted value. For each unique experiment in which the stopwatch was Used, the burette was filled
with water and bled to the 50 mL Mark. The stopcock was then closed. Next, the experimenter. Simultaneously turned the
stopcock to its fully open position and started a stopwatch. The watch was stopped coincident with the Last water leaving
the burette. To generate a measurement Uncertainty at the 95% confidence level, plus or minus two Standard deviations for
the drain time data are reported. The Resulting experimental drain time for the 50 mL burette was 24.2 ± 0.4 seconds.
Figure shows a representative sample plot from One of the 12 burette drain time runs.

3. Methodology
3.1 Experimental Setup
The apparatus consists of a hydraulic bench, Bernoulli apparatus with a 14-degree tapered section, and a stopwatch. The
base of the apparatus is set to horizontal to ensure accuracy in manometer height readings. The inlet is connected to the
bench flow supply, and the test section consists of a 14-degree taper converging in the direction of the flow.

3.2 Procedure
1. Set up the Bernoulli apparatus on the hydraulic bench with its base horizontal.
2. Ensure the test section has a 14-degree tapered section.
3. Connect the inlet to the bench flow supply and fill the apparatus with water.
4. Gradually open the bench valve to purge air from the system.
5. Set the manometers at a convenient level by opening the air valve and then close it.
6. Take readings of static head from the manometers and measure the flow rate by timed volume collection.
7. Traverse the total pressure probe along the length of the test section, taking measurements at 1 cm intervals.
8. Reverse the test section and repeat the procedure.
4. Results and Discussion

Volum Time Q=V/T Diameter Area Velocity Stati Dynamic Total Experimental
e (s) (m3/s) (mm) (m2) v=Q/A c Head Head Head
V (m/s) Head (m) (m) (m)
(m3) (m)
0.001 28.05 0.0000357 25 0.00049 0.0728 220 0.000270 220 220
0
0.001 28.05 0.0000357 13.9 0.00015 0.2364 215 0.002851 215 215
1
0.001 28.05 0.0000357 11.8 0.00010 0.3275 210 0.005472 210 210
9
0.001 28.05 0.0000357 10.7 0.00008 0.4011 200 0.008208 200 200
9
0.001 28.05 0.0000357 10.8 0.00009 0.3880 190 0.007681 190 190
2

4.1. Graph

4.2. Discussion
The experiment successfully demonstrates the validity of Bernoulli's equation in the steady flow of water through a tapered
duct. The results confirm that the sum of static, dynamic, and potential heads remains constant along the duct. This
validates the use of Bernoulli's equation for incompressible and frictionless fluid flows.
5. References
1.Traum, M. J., & Zambrano, L. E. M. (2021). A Fluids Experiment for Remote Learners to Test the Unsteady Bernoulli
Equation Using a Burette. Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE). Retrieved from arXiv
(2108.00510v1 (1)).
2. Alexa, V., Kiss, I., &, S. (2016). Verification of Bernoulli Law Using the Software Autodesk Simulation CFD. Analecta,
8(2), 120-127.

Experiment # 3

Determination of Coefficient of Discharge of two small orifice

 1. Introduction
There are four types of Hydraulic Coefficients:
1. Coefficient of Velocity
2. Coefficient of Discharge
3. Coefficient of Contraction
4. Coefficient of Resistance
In this experiment, our main aim is to determine the coefficient of discharge by
experimentally performing the observation on the trajectory path and from that path finding the
required parameters. Application of Bernoulli’s Equation is used for this purpose. In this Report,
we will write about the orifice and the terminologies related to Trajectory Path.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Coefficient of Discharge:
the ratio of an actual discharge through an orifice to the theoretical discharge is
known as coefficient of discharge.
It is also product of coefficient of velocity and coefficient of contraction.
2.2. Analytical Method
2.2.1. Derivation of Coefficient of Discharge:
The ideal orifice outflow velocity &from the application of Bernoulli’s equation –
conservation of mechanical energy for a steady (incompressible (frictionless flow) at the Jet vena
contracta & narrowest diameter) is
V=(2gh)0.5

The actual velocity:

V= Cv (2gh)0.5
Cv is always less than 1 because of friction and effects of viscosity

Cv= x/2(yg)0.5
 A graph plotted against (yg)0.5 and x will have a slope of 2Cv.
The actual flow rate is:
Qv = Acv
Where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the venna-contracta:
Ac = CcA0
Where A0 is orifice area and Cc is coefficient of contraction and is always less than 1.
Hence,
Qv = CcAoCv(2gh)0.5

Qv = CdA0(2gh)0.5

If Cd assumed to be constant then graph of Q plotted against (h)0.5 will linear and slope

2.3. Orifice:
An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid flows out is known as orifice.
This hole or opening is called an orifice, so long as the level of the liquid on the upstream
side is above the top of the orifice.
The typical purpose of an orifice is the measurement of discharge. An orifice may be provided in
the vertical side of a vessel or in the base. But the former one is more common.

2.3.1 Classifications of Orifices:

With respect to the size, shape, shape of edge and type of discharge orifices are classified
in four categories:
1. According to Size:
a) Small Orifice:
If the diameter of orifice is relatively small in range of 2-3mm such
orifice is known as small orifice. When orifice with small diameter is
used the trajectory path will bend slightly less as compared to the path
followed when lager orifice is used.

b) Large Orifice:
If the diameter of orifice is larger in range of 8-10mm such orifice is
large orifice. When orifice with large diameter is used the trajectory path
will bend slightly more as compared to the path followed when smaller
orifice is used.
 2. According to Shape:
a) Circular
b) Triangular
c) Rectangular

3. According to Edge Shape:

a) Sharp edge
b) Belt mouthed

4. According to Nature of Discharge:

a) Fully merged orifice:
When outlet side of orifice is beneath the surface of the liquid then
orifice is fully merged orifice.
b) Partially merged orifice:
When outlet of orifice is partially under the surface of the orifice.

2.4. Jet of Water:

The continuous stream of water that flows out of orifice is known as jet of water. We
need to observe the path of jet with the help of needles to have the coefficient of velocity.

2.5. Venna- Contracta:

Consider an orifice is fitted with a tank. The liquid particles, in order to flow out
through the orifice, move towards the orifice from all directions. A few of the particles first
move downward, then take a turn to enter into the orifice and then finally flow through it.

2.6. . Modeling and Simulation for the Coefficient of Discharge Experiment [1]
 The geometry here is composed of a
section of pipe with an orifice that was
created using built-in ANSYS CAD
software. The pipe is 0.1m in diameter.
The length of the pipe was set
sufficiently long to minimize the
entrance effects. In many pipe flows of
practical engineering interest, the
entrance effects become insignificant
beyond a pipe length of 10 diameters,
and the hydrodynamic entry length is
approximated as follows [8]: Lh ,
turbulent =4.4Re1 6 D (4) Therefore, to
ensure fully turbulent flow just before
the orifice, the pipe was considered
5.0m long and the orifice plate was
centered at the pipe. The investigation involves simulation of three different sizes of concentric
orifice with bore diameters, d, equal to 0.03 m, 0.04 m, and 0.05 m (Fig. 1). CFD requires the
subdivision of the domain into a number of smaller, non-overlapping subdomains to solve the
flow physics within the domain geometry that has been created [5]. The generated mesh is
shown in Fig. 2. The next step in CFD simulation is setting up the solver. The steady state solver
is activated for the problem described here. Since almost all technical flows are turbulent, a
suitable model to represent the turbulence should be selected. Averaging procedures are widely
applied to the Navier Stokes equations with RANS as the most used method. However, the
averaging process introduces additional unknown terms into the transport equations (Reynolds
Stresses and Fluxes) that need to be provided by suitable turbulence models (turbulence closures)
[7]. The k-epsilon turbulent model is a two-equation model with standard wall treatment and is
applied here for turbulent modeling in the flow domain. The effect of gravity was also inserted
into the model by setting gravitational acceleration equal to −9.81 m2/s in the negative y-
direction. The flowing fluid through the pipe is water with constant properties of density ρ=998.2
kg ma and dynamics viscosity μ=1.003×10−3 kg.ms. Water enters the pipe with a uniform
velocity of 0.2m s from the left side and exits on the right side to air with static gauge pressure of
0 Pa. It is worth mentioning that all pressures, here, are gauge pressure relative to the
atmospheric pressure.

Benefits of modeling and simulation:

 Cost-effective: No physical testing needed.

 Flexible: Explore different scenarios and design options.
 Safe: Study dangerous conditions virtually.
 Optimization: Improve design and performance.
 Understanding: Gain insights into the underlying physics of the problem.

By combining CFD, empirical correlations, and analytical models, it is possible to develop a

comprehensive understanding of the coefficient of discharge and its dependence on various
factors. Modeling and simulation can be used to optimize the design of orifices, improve the
accuracy of flow measurements, and reduce the need for costly experimental testing.

2.7. Experimental method [2]

2.7.1. Experimental Setup

 To achieve the objective of this paper, experimental runs were conducted in the
Water Resources and Hydraulics Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra,
Benha University, Cairo, Egypt. The used apparatus consists primarily of two parts.
The lower part is an Armfield hydraulic bench, and the upper part is a tank with 80
cm height, 80 cm length, and 60 cm width. The back 20 cm of the tank length has
a baffle plate of 70 cm with a 10 cm opening with wire mesh and a gravel layer of
20 cm height to cool down the water entering the tank. The hydraulic bench was
used to supply the upper part with water by pumping this from its reservoir. Actual
discharge Qact was estimated by dividing the collected water volume V by the
corresponding time T (Qact = V/T). The supplied water was controlled by the
hydraulic bench control valve to adjust the water head h across values of 25, 30,
35, 40, 45, and 50 cm. The upper tank was formed from transparent acrylic plastic,
as this is easy to laser-cut and allows visual observation of the water flow. The
orifice was fitted to the front tank side using a groove for this purpose. The used
diameter d has values of 12.7, 19.05, 25.4, and 38.1 mm, Lengths L of 2, 4, 7.5, and
9.25 mm were based on available plate thickness, and lengths of 20, 50, 100, 200,
400, 600, and 1,000 mm were achieved by fitting a standard UPVC pipe of the
desired length (see Figs. 1 to 3). All diameters and lengths of the experimental runs
were analyzed for each orifice and pipe behavior.

2.7.2. Procedure
The experimental run procedure was devised to accurately determine the head-
discharge relationship across multiple diameters and lengths. The following steps
were followed for each experiment:
i. Fit the plate with an opening diameter d of 12.7 mm (0.5 in) and length L of mm.
ii. Turn on the hydraulic bench pump and adjust the control valve to flow water
into the upper tank through the flexible pipe to reach the first water head h
of 25 cm.
iii. Use the hydraulic bench to record the collected water volume V and the
corresponding time T.
iv. Close the control valve and turn off the hydraulic bench pump.
v. Repeat steps 2- 4 for water heads 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 cm.
vi. Repeat steps 1- 5 for the same diameter of 12.7 mm (0.5 in) and with lengths
of 4, 7.5, 9.25, 20, 50, 100, 200, 400, 600, and 1,000 mm.
vii. Repeat steps 1- 6 for opening diameters of 19.05 mm (0.75 in), 25.4 mm (1
in), and 38.1 mm (1.5 in).

3. Methodology
3.1 Experimental Setup
The experimental setup for determining the coefficient of discharge of two small orifices typically involves
the following components Water Tank, Orifice Plate, Manometer, Measuring Cylinder, Stopwatch, Scale,
Valves, Support Structure.
 3.2 Procedure:
5. Position the overflow tube to give the high head
6. Note the value of head and determine the flow rate by timed collection
7. Take time collection three times and take average to find the volumetric flow rate
8. The jet trajectory is obtained by using the needle to trace the profile in the
back- board
9. Place the needles tip just at the upper surface of jet and mark the position of
needle on the paper
10. Using the traces find out the value of x and y and plot graph

4. Results and discussion

Diameter of orifice = 3mm

No. of Orifice
observations. Diameter Head Volume Time Volumetric
flow rate (h)1/2
D h (m) V t (s) Qv (m)0.5
(m3/s)
(m) (m3)
1 0.003 0.270 0.000240 20
0.000012 0.519615
2 0.003 0.300 0.000260 20
0.000013 0.547723
3 0.003 0.340 0.000260 20
0.000013 0.583095
4 0.003 0.350 0.000270 20
0.0000135 0.591608
5 0.003 0.370 0.000275 20
0.00001375 0.608276
 4.1Graph:

From the slope = 0.000017 we can find out the coefficient of discharge as
Ao=7.068*10-6
slope
Cd =
Ao√ 2 g

Cd = 0.543

4.2Discussions:
In this report, our main aim is finding out that how much error occur in finding out the
discharge of the jet from the orifice and at the venna-contracta. If we have very large value
of the Cd, it determines that the discharge at the orifice is much smaller than the discharge at
the venna-contracta.
If we ignore the coefficient of discharge in finding out the discharge flow rate then we will
have a great large error in our readings because in actual the correct value is at the Venna-
contracta.
5. References:

1. M. Danesh and A. M. Hassan, "Estimation of Discharge Coefficient in Orifice Meter by

Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation," International Conference on Pure and Applied
Sciences (ICPAS 2018), pp. 154-156, Aug. 2018. DOI: 10.14500/icpas2018.ren44.
2. M. A. R. Altoukhy and M. O. Alsaydalani, "Investigation of the Discharge Coefficient for Orifice and Pipe
Behavior," Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 839-853, Apr. 2022.

Experiment # 4

Determination of Coefficient of velocity of two small orifice

 1. Introduction

There are four types of Hydraulic Coefficients:

1. Coefficient of Velocity
2. Coefficient of Discharge
3. Coefficient of Contraction
4. Coefficient of Resistance
In this experiment, our main aim is to determine the coefficient of velocity by
experimentally performing the observation on the trajectory path and from that path finding the
required parameters. Application of Bernoulli’s Equation is used for this purpose. In this Report,
we will write about the orifice and the terminologies related to Trajectory Path.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Coefficient of Velocity:
A dimensionless parameter measuring how efficiently an orifice converts head pressure into
kinetic energy.

2.1.1Derivation of Coefficient of Velocity:

The ideal orifice outflow velocity &from the application of Bernoulli’s equation –
conservation of mechanical energy for a steady (incompressible (frictionless flow) at the Jet vena
contracta & narrowest diameter) is
V=(2gh)0.5

The actual velocity:

V= Cv (2gh)0.5
Cv is always less than 1 because of friction and effects of viscosity

x=vt

y=g(t2)/2
 A graph plotted against (yh)0.5 and x will have a slope of 2Cv.

Other contents of this section are described in lab session # 3

3. Methodology
Contents of this section are described in lab session # 3

4. Results and discussion

Orifice
Head x y 2[(yh)^0.5] Cv
Diameter
Table 1
0.003 0.305 0.0135 0.01 0.11
0.0635 0.015 0.134
0.1135 0.0265 0.178
0.9
0.1635 0.0435 0.23
0.2135 0.065 0.28
0.2635 0.088 0.327
Table 2
0.003 0.325 0.0135 0.01 0.114
0.0635 0.018 0.153
0.1135 0.03 0.197
0.93
0.1635 0.046 0.244
0.2135 0.068 0.297
0.2635 0.091 0.344
Table 3
0.003 0.34 0.0135 0.01 0.11
0.0635 0.016 0.147
0.1135 0.025 0.184
0.97
0.1635 0.041 0.236
0.2135 0.065 0.297
0.2635 0.09 0.349
Table 4
0.003 0.335 0.0135 0.01 0.115
0.0635 0.015 0.141
0.1135 0.024 0.179 0.8
0.1635 0.036 0.219
0.2135 0.054 0.268
 0.2635 0.072 0.31
Table 5
0.003 0.355 0.0135 0.01 0.119
0.0635 0.019 0.164
0.1135 0.026 0.192
0.89
0.1635 0.04 0.238
0.2135 0.06 0.292
0.2635 0.084 0.345
Table 6
0.006 0.266 0.0135 0.002 0.04613
0.266 0.0635 0.007 0.086302
0.266 0.1135 0.02 0.145877
1.09
0.266 0.1635 0.039 0.203706
0.266 0.2135 0.065 0.262983
0.266 0.2635 0.091 0.311166
Table 7
0.006 0.294 0.0135 0.002 0.048497
0.294 0.0635 0.013 0.123645
0.294 0.1135 0.024 0.168
1.08
0.294 0.1635 0.04 0.216887
0.294 0.2135 0.065 0.276478
0.294 0.2635 0.089 0.323518
Table 8
0.006 0.332 0.0135 0.002 0.051536
0.332 0.0635 0.009 0.109325
0.332 0.1135 0.022 0.170927
0.98
0.332 0.1635 0.033 0.209342
0.332 0.2135 0.055 0.270259
0.332 0.2635 0.063 0.289247
Table 9
0.006 0.356 0.0135 0.002 0.053367
0.356 0.0635 0.01 0.119331
0.356 0.1135 0.022 0.176997
0.98
0.356 0.1635 0.031 0.210105
0.356 0.2135 0.049 0.264151
0.356 0.2635 0.064 0.301887
Table 10
0.006 0.378 0.0135 0.002 0.054991
0.378 0.0635 0.01 0.122963
0.378 0.1135 0.019 0.169493
1.1
0.378 0.1635 0.03 0.212979
0.378 0.2135 0.054 0.285741
0.378 0.2635 0.067 0.318283
4.3Graph:
4.4Discussions:
In this report, our main aim is finding out that how much error occur in finding out the
velocity of the jet from the orifice and at the venna-contracta. If we have very large value of
the Cv, it determines that the velocity at the orifice is much smaller than the velocity at the
venna-contracta.
If we ignore the coefficient of discharge in finding out the discharge flow rate then we will
have a great large error in our readings because in actual the correct value is at the Venna-
contracta.
6. References:
1. M. Danesh and A. M. Hassan, "Estimation of Discharge Coefficient in
Orifice Meter by Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation,"
International Conference on Pure and Applied Sciences (ICPAS 2018),
pp. 154-156, Aug. 2018. DOI: 10.14500/icpas2018.ren44.
2. M. A. R. Altoukhy and M. O. Alsaydalani, "Investigation of the Discharge
Coefficient for Orifice and Pipe Behavior," Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 839-853, Apr. 2022.