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1.GENRES OF GAMES:

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As a group, we exhaus vely play games belonging to every genre across all pla orms. Using
our own 200+ years of collec ve gaming exper se and taking industry standards into considera on, we have
come up with a set of genre defini ons that cover the gamut of choices available in the market. In the next
part of this ar cle, we are going to explore genre defini ons in detail. But first, here’s the list of Video Game
Genres:

• Ac on
• Adventure
• Driving
• Educa onal
• Exergaming
• Figh ng
• Flying
• MMO
• Music
• Party
• Pla orm
• Puzzle
• Racing
• Real-World
• Role-Playing
• Shooter
• Simple Ac vity
• Simula on
• Sports
• Strategy
• Trivia
• Virtual Life

Genre Defini ons:

Now let’s deep dive into each of these video game genres while looking at some of the games that fall under
each category.

Ac on: Possibly one of the oldest genres out there, Ac on games focus on challenging the player’s reflexes,
hand-eye coordina on, and reac on mes. It is important to note that violence is not a criteria that’s
necessary for a game to be classified into this genre. Games like Call of Duty, Spider Man: Miles Morales, Street
Fighter, and Temple Run fit the ball.

Adventure: Games in the adventure genre generally involve a player exploring the world within the game
while experiencing the story through the eyes of a protagonist. Games such as those in the Tomb Raider series
or the Uncharted series are prime examples. Adventure games need not necessarily rely on high-octane
exhilara ng moments but may focus more on though ul, philosophical, or relaxed endeavours. Games such as
Gone Home are also adventure games.
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Driving: Games that are classified under this genre mainly involve players spending all or most of their me
driving ground/water vehicles like cars, trucks, heavy machinery, trains, boats and ships to name a few. It’s
important to note that the driving mechanic in the game must involve physics like gradual accelera on, gradual
braking, and turning for example. Games such as Euro Truck Simulator 2

Educa onal: Every now and then, we come across games designed specifically with the purpose of helping
players learn about certain subjects or a concept. They very well could focus on a historical event, reinforce
development or could be en rely focused on helping players learn a par cular skill. In order to make the
experience more engaging, the game might involve a narra ve or more game-like elements from other genres.
Games such as Minecra : Educa on Edi on and Educa onal Games for Kids are notable examples.

Figh ng: Games in this genre have a major focus on the players’ character figh ng in real- me against one or
several foes via hand-to-hand or weapon-based combat. Due to the core gameplay being heavily dependent on
hand-eye coordina on and reflexes, figh ng games are always ac on games as well. Some of the more popular
games of this genre belong to franchises like Street Fighter, Tekken, and Mortal Kombat.

Flying: The ‘Flying’ genre mainly focuses on flying a vehicle, object, character, or even a creature/animal.
Within such games, the player has to take into account some or all flying-related physics that could affect
gameplay like gravity, iner a, roll, wind and resistance among others. Games like Tom Clancy’s HAWX,
Freelancer, Flappy Birds, and Microso Flight Simulator can be classified as ‘Flying’ genre games.

MMO: ‘Massively Mul player Online’ genre games are self-explanatory. The primary criteria is that it should
require the player to play online simultaneously with numerous others (could be in the hundreds or even
thousands). Some common features across MMOs include persistent online worlds, guilds, clans and par es,
social interac ons, raids and Player Vs Player combat. They could also have Guild Vs Guild/Realm Vs Realm
combat and an ‘Endgame’ through which the player remains invested, despite having completed the main
story or having reached the maximum level cap. Popular examples are World of Warcra , EVE: Online, and
Guild Wars 2.

Music: ‘Music’ genre games are those where the main focus is on music-related ac vi es. A player could be
crea ng, manipula ng, and composing music or could simply be playing, performing, or dancing to it. Music
genre games like Guitar Hero have actually had a cultural impact with some publica ons even deeming it as a
“Cultural Phenomenon”. Other popular entries in this category include the likes of SingStar and Amplitude.

Party: ‘Party’ genre games refer to games that are intended to be played by a group of people together during
a social gathering with family or friends. They are designed to be easy to play and simple to learn. Party games
almost always include a local mul player that can be enjoyed by both players and spectators. Games such as
those in the Mario Party series and Buzz! Series are some of the more well known games in this genre.

Puzzle: These games are for those who like to put their brain to use and find the thrill in solving puzzles.
Whether simple adapta ons of real-world puzzles like Sudoku or full-blown puzzle games meant to be
explored in a video game environment like The Witness, there’s a lot of variety on offer. They test the player’s
problem-solving skills including logic, pa ern recogni on, sequence solving, and word comple on. Puzzle
games con nue to find millions of fans, especially on mobile phones where games like Candy Crush Saga are
extremely popular.

Racing: A ‘Racing’ game mainly focuses on racing a vehicle, animal, monster/creature or object, on land, water,
air, or in space. The player usually races against an opponent, the clock, or both. The gameplay may be
anything between a hardcore simula on or a simple arcade racing experience and can be based on real-life
events and tracks like F1, or completely fantas cal like Mario Kart. Some popular examples are the Need For
Speed and Forza series.
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Real-World: This genre consists of digital adapta ons of actual games that exist in the real world. Card
games like Poker and UNO fall into this category. Other examples include games that are played with physical
machines in the real world, such as Pinball and Slot Machines.

Role-Playing: A Role-playing video game (RPG) primarily involves the player taking control of a character
and progressing gradually by upgrading, levelling up, and/or increasing the character’s power as they progress
through the game. Common features of RPGs include but are not limited to skill / ability unlocks, levelling up,
experience or training systems, NPC interac ons, and side-missions. Some examples are Final Fantasy VII, The
Witcher, and Monster Hunter Stories.

Shooter: One of the most popular video game genres is arguably the ‘Shooter’ genre. ‘Shooter’ games o en
require the player to aim and shoot at objects/enemies throughout all or most of the game. Games like the
Call Of Duty series or the Ba lefield series are commonly known ‘Shooter’ games. This genre is not just limited
to shoo ng guns or weapons; a game like Harry Po er & The Chamber Of Secrets or ‘Spellbreak’ where the
player shoots magic qualifies as well.

Simple Ac vity Game: The games in this genre offer a simple ac vity (such as drawing, dressing up, cooking
and the like) as their core gameplay loop. They are meant to provide a stress-free and relaxed environment to
the player, where there is a minimal to non-existent learning curve and very li le challenge faced while
playing. A lot of such games are developed for mobiles, allowing players to unwind and play on the go. Some
prominent examples include Star Girl, Li le Tailor 2, and Li le Panda’s Bake Shop.

Simula on: In 2010, Gran Turismo 5 was launched. It was the first game in the series to provide a Damage
Model. It also featured weather effects that were available for specific circuits. Such games that are realis cally
modelled to simulate real-life (driving a race car or flying a plane for instance) or hypothe cal (space
explora on games) experiences/events taking into account most or all possible parameters, fall under this
category. For example, in a simula on car driving game, the player will have to watch the fuel gauge, obey
traffic rules, change gears and account terrain to name a few. Games like the aforemen oned Gran Turismo 5,
Star Ci zen, Asse o Corsa, Farming Simulator Series, and Elite Dangerous are prime examples of the
“Simula on” genre.

Sports: From virtually playing a real or fic onal sport to managing the ac vi es around it sports games have
always found a firm foo ng among gamers. Games like those in the F1 series or the FIFA series fall under this
category.

Strategy: Games under the ‘Strategy’ genre are primarily focused on measured planning and tac cs to either
defeat opponents or achieve a goal. Such games may present strategic, tac cal, and even logis cal or financial
challenges. Some notable examples of this genre are the Age of Empires series, Total War series and the likes
of X-COM 2, Ci es: Skylines, SimCity: BuildIt, and Civiliza on V.

Trivia: Games that fall under the ‘Trivia’ genre, just like their real-life counterparts, focus on asking players
ques ons on various subjects or themes and scoring them based on the accuracy of their responses. Some
well known trivia games are Scene It?, Trivia Crack, QuizUp, and Lights, Camera, Ac on.

Conclusion

The sheer number and variety of games released every year makes it tough to keep track of the evolving
trends, including the rise of new video game genres. This is where a deep and nuanced taxonomy created by
passionate gamers and industry veterans, like those at Gameopedia, can help. With a coverage of over
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180,000+ games, we can help online retailers, game streaming pla orms, and the like categorize games on
their pla orms more efficiently, thus improving discoverability, recommenda ons, and personaliza on

2. 2D & 3D TRANSFORMATIONS:

Introduc on of Transforma ons:

Computer Graphics provide the facility of viewing object from different angles. The architect can study building
from different angles i.e.

• Front Evalua on
• Side eleva on
• Top plan

A Cartographer can change the size of charts and topographical maps. So if graphics images are coded as
numbers, the numbers can be stored in memory. These numbers are modified by mathema cal opera ons
called as Transforma on.

Types of Transforma ons:

• Transla on
• Scaling
• Rota ng
• Reflec on
• Shearing
• Transla on

It is the straight line movement of an object from one posi on to another is called Transla on. Here the object
is posi oned from one coordinate loca on to another.

Transla on of point:

To translate a point from coordinate posi on (x, y) to another (x1 y1), we add algebraically the transla on
distances Tx and Ty to original coordinate.

x1=x+Tx

y1=y+Ty

The transla on pair (Tx,Ty) is called as shi vector.

Transla on is a movement of objects without deforma on. Every posi on or point is translated by the
same amount. When the straight line is translated, then it will be drawn using endpoints.

For transla ng polygon, each vertex of the polygon is converted to a new posi on. Similarly,
curved objects are translated. To change the posi on of the circle or ellipse its center coordinates are
transformed, then the object is drawn using new coordinates.

Let P is a point with coordinates (x, y). It will be translated as (x1 y1).
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Matrix for Transla on:

Scaling:

It is used to alter or change the size of objects. The change is done using scaling factors. There are two scaling
factors, i.e. Sx in x direc on Sy in y-direc on. If the original posi on is x and y. Scaling factors are Sx and Sy then
the value of coordinates a er scaling will be x1 and y1.

If the picture to be enlarged to twice its original size then Sx = Sy =2. If Sxand Sy are not equal then scaling will
occur but it will elongate or distort the picture.

If scaling factors are less than one, then the size of the object will be reduced. If scaling factors are higher than
one, then the size of the object will be enlarged.

If Sxand Syare equal it is also called as Uniform Scaling. If not equal then called as Differen al Scaling. If scaling
factors with values less than one will move the object closer to coordinate origin, while a value higher than one
will move coordinate posi on farther from origin.

Enlargement: If T1= ,If (x1 y1)is original posi on and T1is transla on vector then (x2 y2) are coordinated
a er scaling
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The image will be enlarged two mes

Reduc on: If T1= . If (x1 y1) is original posi on and T1 is transla on vector, then (x2 y2) are
coordinates a er scaling

Matrix for Scaling:

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Example: Prove that 2D Scaling transforma ons are commuta ve i.e, S1 S2=S2 S1.

Solu on: S1 and S2 are scaling matrices

Rota on:

It is a process of changing the angle of the object. Rota on can be clockwise or an clockwise. For rota on, we
have to specify the angle of rota on and rota on point. Rota on point is also called a pivot point. It is print about
which object is rotated.

Types of Rota on:

1. An clockwise
2. Counterclockwise

The posi ve value of the pivot point (rota on angle) rotates an object in a counter-clockwise (an -clockwise)
direc on.The nega ve value of the pivot point (rota on angle) rotates an object in a clockwise direc on.When
the object is rotated, then every point of the object is rotated by the same angle.

Straight Line: Straight Line is rotated by the endpoints with the same angle and redrawing the line between new
endpoints.

Polygon: Polygon is rotated by shi ing every vertex using the same rota onal angle.

Curved Lines: Curved Lines are rotated by reposi oning of all points and drawing of the curve at new posi ons.
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Circle: It can be obtained by center posi on by the specified angle.

Ellipse: Its rota on can be obtained by rota ng major and minor axis of an ellipse by the desired angle.

Matrix for rota on is a clockwise direc on.

Matrix for rota on is an an clockwise direc on.

Matrix for homogeneous co-ordinate rota on (clockwise)

Matrix for homogeneous co-ordinate rota on (an clockwise)

Rota on about an arbitrary point: If we want to rotate an object or point about an arbitrary point, first of all,
we translate the point about which we want to rotate to the origin. Then rotate point or object about the origin,
and at the end, we again translate it to the original place. We get rota on about an arbitrary point.
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Example: The point (x, y) is to be rotated The (xc yc) is a point about which counterclockwise rota on
is doneStep1: Translate point (xc yc) to origin

Step2: Rota on of (x, y) about the origin

Step3: Transla on of center of rota onback to its original posi on

Reflec on:

It is a transforma on which produces a mirror image of an object. The mirror image can be either
about x-axis or y-axis. The object is rotated by180°.

Types of Reflec on:

1. Reflec on about the x-axis

2. Reflec on about the y-axis
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3. Reflec on about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through the origin
4. Reflec on about line y=x

1. Reflec on about x-axis: The object can be reflected about x-axis with the help of the following matrix

In this transforma on value of x will remain same whereas the value of y will become nega ve. Following
figures shows the reflec on of the object axis. The object will lie another side of the x-axis.

2. Reflec on about y-axis: The object can be reflected about y-axis with the help of following transforma on
matrix

Here the values of x will be reversed, whereas the value of y will remain the same. The object will lie another
side of the y-axis.

The following figure shows the reflec on about the y-axis

3. Reflec on about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through origin:

In the matrix of this transforma on is given below
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In this value of x and y both will be reversed. This is also called as half revolu on about the origin.

4. Reflec on about line y=x: The object may be reflected about line y = x with the help of following
transforma on matrix

First of all, the object is rotated at 45°. The direc on of rota on is clockwise. A er it reflec on is done concerning
x-axis. The last step is the rota on of y=x back to its original posi on that is counterclockwise at 45°.
Shearing:

It is transforma on which changes the shape of object. The sliding of layers of object occur. The shear can be in
one direc on or in two direc ons.

Shearing in the X-direc on: In this horizontal shearing sliding of layers occur. The homogeneous matrix for
shearing in the x-direc on is shown below:
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Shearing in the Y-direc on: Here shearing is done by sliding along ver cal or y-axis.

Shearing in X-Y direc ons: Here layers will be slided in both x as well as y direc on. The sliding will be in
horizontal as well as ver cal direc on. The shape of the object will be distorted. The matrix of shear in both
direc ons is given by:

Matrix Representa on of 2D Transforma on

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Three Dimensional Transforma ons

The geometric transforma ons play a vital role in genera ng images of three Dimensional objects with the help
of these transforma ons. The loca on of objects rela ve to others can be easily expressed. Some mes viewpoint
changes rapidly, or some mes objects move in rela on to each other. For this number of transforma on can be
carried out repeatedly.

Transla on

It is the movement of an object from one posi on to another posi on. Transla on is done using transla on
vectors. There are three vectors in 3D instead of two. These vectors are in x, y, and z direc ons. Transla on in
the x-direc on is represented using Tx. The transla on is y-direc on is represented using Ty. The transla on in
the z- direc on is represented using Tz.

If P is a point having co-ordinates in three direc ons (x, y, z) is translated, then a er transla on its coordinates
will be (x1 y1 z1) a er transla on. Tx Ty Tz are transla on vectors in x, y, and z direc ons respec vely.x1=x+Tx
y1=y+Ty
z1=z+ Tz
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Three-dimensional transforma ons are performed by transforming each vertex of the object. If an object has
five corners, then the transla on will be accomplished by transla ng all five points to new loca ons. Following
figure 1 shows the transla on of point figure 2 shows the transla on of the cube.

Matrix for transla on

Scaling

Scaling is used to change the size of an object. The size can be increased or decreased. The scaling three factors
are required Sx Sy and Sz.

Sx=Scalingfactorinx-direc on
Sy=Scalingfactoriny-direc on
Sz=Scaling factor in z-direc on

Matrix for Scaling

Scaling of the object rela ve to a fixed point
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Following are steps performed when scaling of objects with fixed point (a, b, c). It can be represented as below:

1. Translate fixed point to the origin

2. Scale the object rela ve to the origin

3. Translate object back to its original posi on.

Note: If all scaling factors Sx=Sy=Sz.Then scaling is called as uniform. If scaling is done with different
scaling vectors, it is called a differen al scaling.

In figure (a) point (a, b, c) is shown, and object whose scaling is to done also shown in steps in fig (b), fig (c) and
fig (d).

G
Rota on:

It is moving of an object about an angle. Movement can be an clockwise or clockwise. 3D rota on is complex as
compared to the 2D rota on. For 2D we describe the angle of rota on, but for a 3D angle of rota on and axis of
rota on are required. The axis can be either x or y or z.

Following figures shows rota on about x, y, z- axis

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Following figure show rota on of the object about the Y axis and Zaxis

Rota on about Arbitrary Axis

When the object is rotated about an axis that is not parallel to any one of co-ordinate axis, i.e., x, y, z. Then
addi onal transforma ons are required. First of all, alignment is needed, and then the object is being back to
the original posi on. Following steps are required

1. Translate the object to the origin

2. Rotate object so that axis of object coincide with any of coordinate axis.

3. Perform rota on about co-ordinate axis with whom coinciding is done.

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4. Apply inverse rota on to bring rota on back to the original posi on.

Matrix for represen ng three-dimensional rota ons about the Z axis

Matrix for represen ng three-dimensional rota ons about the X axis

Matrix for represen ng three-dimensional rota ons about the Y axis

Following figure show the original posi on of object and posi on of object a er rota on about the
x-axis

5. Apply inverse transla on to bring rota on axis to the original posi on.
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For such transforma ons, composite transforma ons are required. All the above steps are applied on
points P' and P".Each step is explained using a separate figure.

Step1: Ini al posi on of P' and P"is shown

Step2: Translate object P' to origin

Step3: Rotate P" to z axis so that it aligns along the z-axis

Step4: Rotate about around z- axis

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Step5: Rotate axis to the original posi on

Step6: Translate axis to the original posi on.

Inverse Transforma ons:

These are also called as opposite transforma ons. If T is a transla on matrix than inverse transla on is
represen ng using T-1. The inverse matrix is achieved using the opposite sign.

Example: Transla on and its inverse matrix

Transla on matrix
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Inverse transla on matrix

Reflec on

It is also called a mirror image of an object. For this reflec on axis and reflec on of plane is selected.
Threedimensional reflec ons are similar to two dimensions. Reflec on is 180° about the given axis. For
reflec on, plane is selected (xy,xz or yz). Following matrices show reflec on respect to all these three planes.
Reflec on rela ve to XY plane

Reflec on rela ve to YZ plane

Reflec on rela ve to ZX plane

t is change in the shape of the object. It is also called as deforma on. Change can be in the x -direc on or

y -direc on or both direc ons in case of 2D. If shear occurs in both direc ons, the object will be distorted. But
in 3D shear can occur in three direc ons.

Matrix for shear

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Overview:

There are two basic kinds of Transforma on.

1.Two-Dimensional(2D) Transforma on:
“When we translate, rotate, and scale object in the two-dimensional plane, then it is called a Two-Dimensional
Transforma on.” A two-dimensional plane consists of the x and y-axis.
The Two-Dimensional Transforma on includes-

• 2D Transla on: “Transla on is a mechanism used to move the object from one posi on to another
posi on on the screen.”
• 2D Rota on: “Rota on is a process used to rotate the object from origin to a par cular angle.”
• 2D Scaling: “Scaling is a process or technique used to resize the object in two-dimensional plane.” 
2D Reflec on: “Reflec on is a mechanism or process in which we can rotate the object at the angle of
180°”.
• 2D Shearing: “Shearing is a process that is used to perform slan ng on the object.” It is also called
“Skewing.”

2.Three-Dimensional Transforma on:

“When we translate, rotate, and scale object in the three-dimensional plane then, it is called
ThreeDimensional(3D) Transforma on”. A three-dimensional plane consists of x, y, and z-axis.
The Three-Dimensional Transforma on includes-

• 3D Transla on: “Transla on is a mechanism used to move the object from one posi on to another
posi on on the three-dimensional plane.”
• 3D Rota on: “Rota on is a process used to rotate the object from origin to a par cular angle in
threedimensional plane.”
• 3D Scaling: “Scaling is a process or technique used to resize the object in three-dimensional plane”.
• 3D Reflec on: “Reflec on is a mechanism or process in which we can rotate the object at the angle of
180° in three-dimensional plane.”
• 3D Shearing: “Shearing is a process that is used to perform slan ng on the object.” It is also called
“Skewing”. It also includes z-axis.

3.projec on:

Projec on is a technique or process which is used to transform a 3D object into a 2D plane." In other words,
we can define "projec on as a mapping of points P (x, y, z) on to its image P' (x,' y,'z') in the projec on plane
or view plane, which create the display surface.” Types of Projec on:
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There are two types of projec on.

Perspec ve Projec on:

In the perspec ve projec on, the distance of the project plane from the center of projec on is finite. The
object size keeps changing in reverse order with distance.
Perspec ve projec on is used to determine the projector lines come together at a single point. The single point
is also called "project reference point" or "Center of projec on."

• Characteris c of Perspec ve Projec on:

o The Distance between the object and projec on center is finite.
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o In Perspec ve Projec on, it is difficult to define the actual size and shape of the object. o
The Perspec ve Projec on has the concept of vanishing points. o The Perspec ve
Projec on is realis c but tough to implement.
• Vanishing Point: Vanishing point can be defined as a point in image plane where all parallel lines are
interlinked. The Vanishing point is also called “Direc ng Point.”

Use of Vanishing Point:

• It is used in 3D games and graphics edi ng.

• It is also used to represent 3D objects.
• We can also include perspec ve in the background of an image.
• We can also insert the shadow effect in an image.

Types of Perspec ve Projec on:

There are three types of Perspec ve Projec on.

1. One Point: A One Point perspec ve contains only one vanishing point on the horizon line.

It is easy to draw.
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Use of One Point- The One Point projec on is mostly used to draw the images of roads, railway tracks, and
buildings.
2.Two Point: It is also called "Angular Perspec ve." A Two Point perspec ve contains two vanishing points on
the line.

Use of Two Point- The main use of Two Point projec on is to draw the two corner roads.
3.Three-Point- The Three-Point Perspec ve contains three vanishing points. Two points lie on the horizon line,
and one above or below the line.
It is very difficult to draw.
When we see an object from above, than the third point is below the ground. If we see an object from the
below, than the third point is in the space above.

Use of Three-Point: It is mainly used in skyscraping.

Advantages:

1. Be er Look
2. Clear Representa on

Disadvantages:
• Difficult to Draw
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• Not Suitable for many-dimensional images

Parallel Projec on:
In Parallel Projec on, the distance of project plane from the center of projec on is infinite. We can specify the
direc on of projec on instead of the center of the projec on. We can connect the projected ver ces through
the line segment.
The parallel Projec on eliminates the Z-Coordinate. And the parallel lines from each vertex in the object are
enhanced un l the lines intersect the view plane.

• Characteristic of parallel Projection:

o In parallel Projection, the projection lines are parallel to each other.
o There is the least amount of distortion within the object. o The lines that are
parallel to the object are also parallel to the drawing. o The view of Parallel Projec on is
the less realis c cause of no foreshortening. o The Parallel Projec ons are good for
accurate measurements.

Types of Parallel Projec on

There are two kind of parallel Projec on:

1. Orthographic projec on: In the Orthographic Parallel Projec on, the Projec on is perpendicular to the
view plane.

The Orthographic Projec on is divided into two parts-

• Mul view Orthographic Projec on: In Mul view Orthographic Projec on, we can represent the
twodimensional Orthographic image into a three-dimensional object. The Mul view Orthographic
Projec on
Includeso
Front View o
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Top View o
Side View

• Axonometric Orthographic Projec on: The Axonometric Orthographic Projec on is used to construct the
pictorial representa on of an object. The sight lines are perpendicular to the projec on plane.

The Axonometric Orthographic Projec on includes-

1. Isometric: In Isometric, we can represent the three-dimensional objects into two-dimensional drawings
visually. The Angle between the two co-ordinate is 120 degrees.

2. Dimetric: In Dimetric Projec on, the view direc on of the two axes are equal, and the direc on of the
third axis is defined individually.
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3. Trimetric: In the Trimetric Projec on, the view direc on of all three axes is unequal. The scale of all three
angles is defined individually.

• Oblique Projec on: In the Oblique Parallel Projec on, the direc on of projec on is not normal to
projec on of plane. It is a simple technique that is used to construct two-dimensional images of three
dimensional objects.
The Oblique Projec on is mostly used in technical drawing.
The Oblique Projec on is divided into two parts-

• Cavalier: In cavalier Projec on, there is an angle between the Projec on and Projec on Plane is 45
degrees.
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• Cabinet: In Cabinet Projec on, there is an angle between Projec on and Projec on Plane is 63.4
degrees.

Advantages:

1. Good for exact Measurement

2. Parallel lines remain parallel

Disadvantages:

1. Less Realis c Looking

2. Angles are not preserved
4. COLOR MODEL:

A color model is a way to describe colors in a color system.A COLOR MODEL is a specifica on of a
color coordinate system and the subset of visible colors in this coordinate system. Color model is a 3D
color coordinate system to produce all range of color through the primary color set.A color model is a
system that helps us to define and describe colors through numerical values. There are many types of
color models that use different mathema cal systems to represent colors, although most color models
typically use a combina on of three or four values or color components.

Some popular color models used across the design industry are:

• RGB (Red, Green, Blue)

• HSL (Hue, Satura on, Lightness)
• CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black)

RGB COLOR MODEL

• The RGB model is used when working with digital screen based designs, such as those
viewed on a computer screen or phone display. In the RGB color model, a value between 0
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and 255 is assigned to each of the primary colors, Red, Green and Blue, where 0 is dark
and 255 is bright. By lis ng the three values for the red, green and blue phosphors, you can
specify the exact color that will be mixed.
• The RGB color model is an addi ve color system, which means colors get lighter when
mixed. As each component of light is mixed in, the combina on becomes a new color. Red,
green and blue are the three addi ve primaries. You can create any color within the
constraint of the device using different combina ons of the addi ve primaries. When you
mix all three together in balanced amounts, you get white.
• Television screens and computer monitors create color by turning on the red, green and
blue primaries within each pixel. By changing each of the red, green, and blue primaries
within a pixel to a different brightness, the monitor creates unique colors.
• Because the RGB color model is only capable of producing a certain range (or gamut) of
colors, there are some colors that cannot be reproduced accurately by a computer
monitor. The number of colors visible on a monitor is further reduced by the limita ons of
the video hardware in the computer, which may display anywhere from just black and
white up to 16.7 million colors.

For Example- Computer Monitor, Television etc.

Uses of RGB Color Scheme –

• Used when project involves digital screens like computers, mobile, TV etc.
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• Used in web and applica on design.

• Used in online branding.  Used in social media.

2. CMYK Color model :

CMYK stands for Cyan Magenta Yellow Key (Black). It is the color scheme used for projects including printed
materials. This color mode uses the colors cyan, magenta, yellow and black as primary colors which are
combined in different extents to get different colors. The CMYK model uses prin ng inks. The Subtrac ve
model uses a reflec on of light to display the colors. The perceived color depends on the reflec on of light.

This color scheme is a subtrac ve type mode that combines the colors:- cyan, magenta, yellow and
black in various degrees which creates a variety of different colors. A prin ng machine creates images by
combining these colors with physical ink. when all colors are mixed with 0% degree white color is created, exp
CMYK(0%, 0%, 0%, 0%) for white, when all colors are mixed, we get the black color.
For Example- Paint, Pigments, and color filter etc.

Uses of CMYK Color scheme –

• Used when project involves physically printed designs etc.
• Used in physical branding like business cards etc.
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• Used in adver sing like posters, billboards, flyers etc.  Used in cloth branding like t-shirts etc.

HSL colour model:

The HSL model is very similar to the RGB color model. In fact, when they're expressed mathema cally,
they're iden cal. The difference lies in how colors are expressed numerically.

The hue determines which basic color it is. Red, green, blue, yellow, orange, etc. are different hues. Satura on
and luminance tell more about the varia ons of these basic colors. Satura on is the vividness (or "purity") of
the color, i.e., how much of the color's complement is mixed in. Finally, lightness refers to the "whiteness" of
the color. It may also be termed "brightness," "value" or "intensity ."

The HSV color model

HSV stands for Hue, Satura on and Value. This model is also some mes called HSB, where the B stands for

Brightness. But that is exactly the same model. If I write about HSV below, the same applies to HSB.The HSV

model simulates how different colors of paint mix together, where the color hue in a certain satura on can be

adjusted in different degrees from no color to pure color and the Value-parameter thereby determines how

much black or white paint is virtually mixed with it to make the color darker of lighter.

All color models treated so far are hardware oriented. The Hue-Satura on-Value
model is oriented towards the user/ar st. The allowed coordinates fill a six sided pyramid the 3 top faces of
the color cube as base. Note that at the same height colors of different perceived brightness are posi oned.
Value is given by the height, satura on is coded in the distance from the axes and hue by the posi on on the
boundary.
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Figure: The HSV-model versus the RGB-model

Note that conversion from RGB to HSV is given by affine coordinate changes on each of the 3 four-sided
subpyramids corresponding each to 1/3 of the color cube.

YIQ:
YIQ is the most widely colour model used in Television broadcas ng. Y stands for luminance part and
IQ stands for chrominance part. In the black and white television, only the luminance part (Y) was broadcast.
The y value is similar to the grayscale part. The colour informa on is represented by the IQ part. There exist a
formula to convert RGB into YIQ and vice-versa.

YIQ model is used in the conversion of grayscale images to RGB colour images.

Difference b/w rgb and cymk

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5.Illumina on Models and shader models:

An illumina on Model is a formula in variables associated with the surface proper es and light condi ons to
calculate the intensity of light reflected from a point on a surface.
1. Ambient Light
2. Diffused Light
3. Specular Reflected Light
Ambient Light:
An object may be visible even if it is not directly exposed to a light source. That is because some light is always
sca ered from the nearby illuminated objects and surroundings. This is called Ambient light. This light is
diffused and non-direc onal and it is assumed to be incident with uniform intensity on all objects in a scene.

Diffused Light:

Unlike in the case of ambient ligh ng where a distributed light source is assumed, the intensity profile across
the surface changes when exposed to a point light source. This is because light from the source is incident at a
different angle at different points of the surface. The model which represents such diffused reflec on is based
on Lambert’s cosine law and it is given by,

Idiff = I1kdcosθ

Specular Reflected Light:

Typical shiny surfaces like polished metal, oily skins, porcelain, etc, that are neither diffuse reflectors nor ideal
reflectors like reflec ng light specularly when exposed to a point light source. Such reflec on is iden fied by a
highlight or bright spot on the surface when viewed from par cular direc ons. Most interes ngly such spots
appear to move over the surface with the movement of the viewpoint. This is called Specularly Reflected
Light.
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Distance Factor:

We know that the intensity of light energy falls off as it travels farther from the light source. So, the intensity
profile of two iden cal surfaces, under even ligh ng condi ons, can’t be iden cal if they are at different
distances from the light source and/or viewpoint. A factor is commonly known as a distance factor.

Color Factor:
In the illumina on models consider only monochroma c lights and surfaces. To model color light and colored
surfaces we can assume there are basic components of incident light intensity, namely IRED, IGREEN, and IBLUE and
each of the three coefficient of reflec on (ka, kd, ks) as three elements (kRED, kGREEN and kBLUE) vector. This is called
as Color Factor. It means for a given surface we can have nine different characteris c reflec on coefficients
that one-to-one correspond with similar color lights only.

Shading:
We have learned how to calculate the intensity of light reflected from a point in a given ligh ng and surface
condi on. Now, we have to use a technique for finding the intensity of a surface as a whole to simulate its
appearance under the given ligh ng condi on. This technique is called Shading.

Constant Shading:
It is the simplest shading model for a polygon surface, it is also known as flat shading or faceted shading.
Instead of applying the illumina on model separately at each point of the surface, this model applies the
illumina on model only once to determine a single intensity value for a polygon. All points over the surface of
a polygon are then displayed with the same intensity value. This approach assumes that:
 lOM oARcP SD| 31 91 094 3

1. All light sources are at infinity implying N.L and a enua on factor are constant across a polygon surface.
2. The viewpoint is at infinity implying V.R is constant across a polygon surface.
3. The graphic object being modeled as a polygonal face isn’t an approxima on to a curved surface.

Interpolated Shading:
Interpolated Shading is a kind of trade-off between computa onal expense and realis c shading quality. To
yield more realis c shading with intensity varying from point to point on a surface needs due considera on to
change of curvature, the direc on of the incident light, and the posi on of viewpoint from one point on a
surface to another.

Gouraud Shading:
The following steps are required to carry out each polygonal face of the surface mesh for this shading scheme
developed by Gouraud.
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Step1: Determine the unit normal vector at each vertex of a polygon. If a vertex is shared by some polygon
faces the average of the normals to all the faces at that vertex gives the desired normal vector.
Step2: Find the intensi es at each vertex by applying illumina on models separately using respec ve vertex
normals.
Step3: For each scan line, calculate intensi es at the intersec on of a scan line with an edge by linear
interpola on of intensi es at the edge endpoints.
Step4: Calculate intensi es at points along a scan line between the edges by linear interpola on of intensi es
at the intersec ons of the scan line with the edges.

Phong Shading:

One of the major disadvantages of Gouraud shading is that it avoids finding the surface normal at each point
on every scan line. As a result, the change in curvature from point to point is overlooked.

But Phong shading achieves a be er approxima on to the true shape of a surface and thus a be er rendering
of the surface by determining surface normals at each point using the linear interpola on technique.
Illumina on models are applied at every such point using the normal vector calculated at the respec ve points
and quite obviously the process is computa onally expensive.
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6.Anima on

Anima on refers to the movement on the screen of the display device created by displaying a sequence of s ll
images. Anima on is the technique of designing, drawing, making layouts and prepara on of photographic series
which are integrated into the mul media and gaming products. Anima on connects the exploita on and
management of s ll images to generate the illusion of movement. A person who creates anima ons is called
animator. He/she use various computer technologies to capture the pictures and then to animate these in the
desired sequence.

Anima on includes all the visual changes on the screen of display devices. These are:

1. Change of shape as shown in fig:

2. Change in size as shown in fig:

3. Change in color as shown in fig:

4. Change in structure as shown in fig:

5. Change in angle as shown in fig:

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Anima on techniques in computer graphics

Frame-by-frame anima on

The oldest form of anima on, frame-by-frame anima on is any form of anima on that is shot one frame at a
me, like a flipbook. It is usually reserved for non-digital anima on such as hand-drawn or stop mo on
anima on.

Mo on capture (mocap) anima on

Mo on capture uses a mix of technology and mocap sensors to track and record real-life movement, and
translate it into 3D anima on. Mocap devices, made up of sensors and markers, are a ached to an object or
actor, which are then filmed on a special camera rig.

Procedural anima on

Procedural anima on automa cally generates anima on in real- me. This is different from mocap and other
3D anima on where anima ons are predefined assets (i.e., they have been created by hand or with a mocap
device). The technique for procedural anima on is to generate anima ons that are reliant on physics
simula ons like water, for example, where the simula on would take fluid dynamics into account.

Behavioral anima on

Behavioral anima on is a form of procedural anima on where an autonomous character can determine its
own ac ons to an extent. It relies on genera on using certain rules that define how objects react to their
environment. It can be used to animate crowds or flocks of animals, using rela vely simple rule-based mo on
for a large number of moving objects.

Keyframing

Keyframing is the backbone of anima ng any form of movement, crea ng a smooth transi on between
frames. Digital keyframe anima on iden fies different elements in each frame, and chooses how those
elements will move over me (frames per second) for the most natural result. You can adjust your keyframes
using different parameters like posi on, scale, rota on, and opacity, and also the manner in which you want
the ac on to be performed. This is called keyframe interpola on.

Physically based dynamics

In computer graphics, physically based dynamics is concerned with the simula on of o en complex physically
plausible behaviors. This form of anima on is popular in video games, movies, and interac ve simula ons.
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These anima ons are created in physics engines where physical behaviors can be scripted, even those with
minute details such as fluids or smoke.

Morphing

Morphing is a visual effects technique where one object seamlessly transforms into another. This is different
from tweening, which inserts images between keyframes as an anima on effect to create the illusion of
movement.

2D anima on

A tradi onal form of anima on, 2D anima on creates movement in a two-dimensional space. It occurs when
slightly different drawings are sequenced together over me (typically at 24 frames per second), giving the
illusion of movement, but with no depth to the image. This is most commonly used for cartoons.

3D anima on

Created using so ware, 3D anima on takes computer-generated objects and creates the illusion of movement
through a digital three-dimensional space. Unlike 2D anima on, you don’t need to animate every frame. 3D
anima on is split into three parts: modeling, layout and anima on, and rendering.

Applica on Areas of Anima on:

1. Educa on and Training: Anima on is used in school, colleges and training centers for educa on purpose.
Flight simulators for aircra are also anima on based.

2. Entertainment: Anima on methods are now commonly used in making mo on pictures, music videos
and television shows, etc.

3. Computer Aided Design (CAD): One of the best applica ons of computer anima on is Computer Aided
Design and is generally referred to as CAD. One of the earlier applica ons of CAD was automobile designing. But
now almost all types of designing are done by using CAD applica on, and without anima on, all these work can't
be possible.

4. Adver sing: This is one of the significant applica ons of computer anima on. The most important
advantage of an animated adver sement is that it takes very less space and capture people a en on.

5. Presenta on: Animated Presenta on is the most effec ve way to represent an idea. It is used to describe
financial, sta s cal, mathema cal, scien fic & economic data.

Anima on Func ons

1. Morphing: Morphing is an anima on func on which is used to transform object shape from one form
to another is called Morphing. It is one of the most complicated transforma ons. This func on is commonly
used in movies, cartoons, adver sement, and computer games.
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The process of Morphing involves three steps:

1. In the first step, one ini al image and other final image are added to morphing applica on as shown in
fig: Ist & 4th object consider as key frames.

2. The second step involves the selec on of key points on both the images for a smooth transi on
between two images as shown in 2nd object.

3. In the third step, the key point of the first image transforms to a corresponding key point of the second
image as shown in 3rd object of the figure.
2. Wrapping: Wrapping func on is similar to morphing func on. It distorts only the ini al images so that
it matches with final images and no fade occurs in this func on.

3. Tweening: Tweening is the short form of 'inbetweening.' Tweening is the process of genera ng
intermediate frames between the ini al & last final images. This func on is popular in the film industry.
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4. Panning: Usually Panning refers to rota on of the camera in horizontal Plane. In computer graphics,
Panning relates to the movement of fixed size window across the window object in a scene. In which direc on
the fixed sized window moves, the object appears to move in the opposite direc on as shown in fig:

If the window moves in a backward direc on, then the object appear to move in the forward direc on and the
window moves in forward direc on then the object appear to move in a backward direc on.

5. Zooming: In zooming, the window is fixed an object and change its size, the object also appear to
change in size. When the window is made smaller about a fixed center, the object comes inside the window
appear more enlarged. This feature is known as Zooming In.

When we increase the size of the window about the fixed center, the object comes inside the window appear
small. This feature is known as Zooming Out.
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5. Fractals: Fractal Func on is used to generate a complex picture by using Itera on. Itera on means the
repe on of a single formula again & again with slightly different value based on the previous itera on
result. These results are displayed on the screen in the form of the display picture.

7.Controller Based Animation:

Anima on controller plays an essen al role in the design and implementa on of anima on in the game
development. It serves as a powerful and flexible system for managing complex state-driven anima ons.

The animator controller (or anima on controller) is a state machine to control the transi ons and interac ons
between the anima on clips. It not only play anima ons; it blends them, layers them, and makes transi ons
from one to another based on the parameters and condi ons set.

Anima on clips contain informa on about the movement of game objects, while the animator controller
manages how and when these clips are played.

Components of animator controller

The main components of the animator controller are explained below.

• States: States are the condi ons or scenarios in which the animated character or object can exist. Each
state is associated with an anima on clip. When the controller is in a specific state, it will play the
corresponding anima on clip.
• Transi ons: Transi ons determine how the controller moves from one state to another. It can be set to
happen automa cally a er a certain me or triggered by certain parameters.
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• Parameters: Parameters are the variables that the animator controller uses to decide when to
transi on between states. It includes proper es like boolean flags (isJumping or isRunning) and
triggers.
• Layers: Layers allow the stacking of anima ons, which can be useful for complex characters. o For
example, a character can have a base layer controlling mo on and a higher layer controlling the upper
body or facial expressions.
o Each layer can have its own state machine, and layers can be masked to control specific parts
of the character.
• Blend trees: Blend trees allow for the smoother blending of similar anima ons based on parameters.
o For example, a character's walking and running anima ons can smoothly transi on between
each other based on the speed parameter.

How to add and set animator controller

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to create and set animator controller in Unity.

Create an animator controller

• Select the GameObject.

• Go to Window > Anima on > Anima on. o It will add animator controller in the project window.

Create or import anima on clips

• Go to Window > Anima on > Anima on

• Click on create to create an anima on

Alterna vely,

• Click on Assets > Import New Asset.

• Navigate to your anima on file.  Click Import.
Add anima on clips to the animator controller

• Select the GameObject.

• Go to Window > Anima on > Animator.
o An animator window will open. o You should be able to see the anima ons in the flow chart.
o If the anima ons are not added in the flow chart, drag and drop the anima ons from the
project window into the animator window.
• Right click on the grid area in the animator.
• Create a state.
• Select the state.
• Go to the inspector window.
o You will be able to see the Mo on field. o Click on the circle selector to the right of the
Mo on field to choose an anima on clip.
Create transi ons

Transi ons allow you to switch smoothly between anima ons based on the parameters set.

• Right click on a state (the anima on) .

• Choose Make transi on.
o It will create an arrow you can drag to another state.
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• Click on the transi on arrow to configure it in the inspector.

o You can set the condi ons under which the transi on will occur.
• Repeat these steps for each transi on you want to make.
Add parameters

Parameters are used to make the transi ons on the events happening in the game (user inputs or character
speeds).

• Open the animator window.

o You will be able to see a tab called Parameters.
o Click the "+" icon to add a new parameter.
o You can choose between a float, int, Bool, and Trigger.

Note: Remember to set or change the parameters in the C# scripts for the transi ons to work.
Assign the animator controller to the GameObject

• Select the GameObject you want to animate.

• In the inspector window, you should be able to see the Animator component.
o If not, click on Add Component > Animator.
• In the Animator component, click on the circle selector to the right of Controller.
• Select the animator controller you created.
Test the anima on

• Save all the changes.

• Click on Play to play the anima on.

Your GameObject should animate according to the states and transi ons you set up in your Animator
Controller.

BASICS OF 2D AND 3D GRAPHICS FOR GAME AVATAR:

2D GAME AVATAR

In compu ng, an avatar is a graphical representa on of a user, the user's character, or persona. Avatars can be
two-dimensional icons in Internet forums and other online communi es, where they are also known as profile
pictures, userpics, or formerly picons (personal icons, or possibly "picture icons").
- Flat Representa on: 2D graphics represent avatars using only two dimensions—height and width. There’s no
depth, making it ideal for simpler games or pixel art.
- Textures and Sprites: Avatars are usually created as sprites, which are images or anima ons. A series of
sprites can be used to animate the avatar's ac ons (walking, jumping, etc.).
- Art Style: Common styles include pixel art, vector graphics, or hand-drawn art.
- Movement: Movement is limited to the x and y axes (up, down, le , right).

In summary, 2D avatars offer simplicity and are lightweight in processing, while 3D avatars provide greater
detail and realism but require more complex rendering.

3D game avatar
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3D, or three dimensional, refers to the three spa al dimensions of width, height and depth. The physical world
and everything that is observed in it are three dimensional. While many flat images such as films and
photographs register visually as two dimensional (2D) to the human brain, nothing can physically exist without
all three dimensions.

- Depth and Realism: 3D graphics include height, width, and depth, allowing for more realis c and dynamic
avatars.
-Models and Meshes: Avatars are constructed using 3D models, consis ng of meshes (networks of polygons)
that create the surface of the avatar.
- Textures and Shaders: Textures are applied to the 3D models to give them detail, while shaders control how
light interacts with the surface to add realism.
- Movement: Movement occurs on the x, y, and z axes, providing a full range of mo on (e.g.,
forward/backward, le /right, and up/down).

Differences between 2D and 3D avatars

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Key Components of Game Designing

Below are the key components of game designing explained in detail with the help of examples to help you
be er understand. Game World The game world is crucial for any good video game. A er all, the game world
makes gamers live their gaming experience in the most authen c way. A game design program will help you
build a game that will make the players forget that they are not living it. The characters of the game should feel
natural and living. Usually, inline game designers, concept ar sts, etc., are responsible for this part of game
design.

Game Storyline
Mission designers are the ones who have the responsibility of developing a storyline for a game. They build the
narra ve of the game, develop characters and events that will appeal to the gamers and keep them engaged.
Video Game Characters You also have character ar sts and animators who bring the characters of your
imagina on to life. Character ar sts and animators work very closely with game designers since they give that
unique personality to the characters, making them popular among gamers. The visual aesthe c is crucial to a
good video game. Thus, we see that games with heavy graphics and sharp visual appeal are usually the most
popular among gamers.

Music
Another crucial aspect of making a video game popular is its music. Music has the poten al to take the video
game to the next level by adding a certain mood to it. Music can set the right pace for the gamer and get them
hooked on an exci ng ba le ahead. Without music, a video game is incomplete. Quality Assurance For this
step, we see the involvement of game testers. They check the so ware and look out for any glitches or bugs in
the game. Game testers possess excep onally high technical knowledge and evalua on skills.

Visual Design and Art Style

Talented video game designers leverage aesthe cs, color schemes, and graphical fidelity to create visually
stunning worlds that resonate with players. Whether it's a realis c se ng or a stylized art direc on, visual
design sets the tone, enhances storytelling, and establishes a unique atmosphere that contributes to the
overall game experience.

Sound Design and Music

Sound design and music are essen al components of video game design. The right sound design and music
choices can elevate gameplay moments, intensify narra ve beats, and leave a las ng impression on players.

User Interface and User Experience

User interface (UI) and user experience (UX) are cri cal component of video game design. A well-designed UI
ensures intui ve naviga on, clear communica on of informa on, and seamless interac on between players
and the game. By priori zing user experience, video game designers can create interfaces that are visually
appealing, easy to understand, and enhance overall gameplay enjoyment. Recent Trends in Video Game Design
Recent trends include the rise of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), the incorpora on of
procedural genera on techniques for dynamic content crea on, and the integra on of mul player and social
interac on features. These trends push the boundaries of video game designer, crea ng new possibili es for
immersive and engaging experiences.