CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background
The concept of photons being a form of electromagnetic field quanta
has been known since 1900 when Planck postulated that the process of
emission and atomic radiation occurs in the form of quanta. The idea that
light consists of photons with a certain amount of energy was discovered by
scientists in 1905, but the idea has not been able to prove that these photons
also carry momentum. In classical theory, the description of a wave is that if a
beam of waves with a frequency collides with a material, the electrons in the
material will oscillate with the same frequency as the frequency of the waves
that hit it. As a result of the electron oscillations, radiation will arise that has
the same frequency as the frequency of electron oscillations which is of
course also the same as the frequency of the incident wave that hits the
material.
Classical physics also explains that electron mass does not affect
electron speed because in the classical approach the inertial frame of
reference is considered constant and for objects or particles moving at speeds
much smaller than the speed of light, the mass of the particle will not affect
its speed, while in the modern approach based on Einstein's special relativity,
the speed of the electron mass affects the speed of the electron.
However, from experiments conducted by Compton, results were
obtained that were not in accordance with classical theory. Compton found
that Compton scattering is the scattering of photons by charged particles,
usually electrons. This causes a decrease in energy (increase in wavelength)
of photons (which may be X-rays or gamma-ray photons) which became
known as the Compton effect.
The Compton experiment corroborated the idea of photons with a given
momentum quantity being considered as classical particles. Compton

1
scattering can be described as a collision process between photons and
electrons that are

2
 2

considered to be at rest. Where in this collision, photons are particles that lose
an amount of energy equal to the kinetic energy received by electrons. Based
on this background, so that the experiment with the title "Compton
Scattering" needs to be done so that it can achieve its intended purpose.
B. Problem Formulation
` Based on the background, some of the problems that can be formulated
are as follows.
1. How does electron velocity affect electron mass according to classical
and modern views?
2. How to estimate the rest mass of electrons through Compton scattering
observations?
C. Purpose of Practicum
The objectives of this experiment are as follows
1. Understand the effect of electron velocity on electron mass according
to classical and modern views.
2. Estimate the rest mass of electrons through the observation of Compton
scattering.
D. Benefits of Practicum
The benefits gained by conducting this experiment are as follows.
1. Theoretical Benefits
Knowing the effect of electron velocity on electron mass according
to classical and modern views, being able to know the rest mass of
electrons through Compton scattering observations, and being able to
apply modern physics theories to Compton effect material such as its
application in the Compton telescope, gamma spectroscopy, and many
more.
2. Practical Benefits
The practical benefits of the Compton effect experiment are in the
application of its principles to solar panels by utilizing the nature of
photons as particles which can then convert incoming sunlight into
electric current.
 CHAPTER II
LITERATUR RIVIEW

A. Compton Scattering
In 1923, Compton made an observation on X-ray scattering with a
target of graphite material. When he shot monochromatic X-rays into the
graphite, it turned out that the scattered X-rays had a wavelength greater than
the original X-rays. Compton then concluded that such an effect can be
interpreted as a collision that occurs between photons and electrons, with
photons considered to behave like particles (Kusmiranto, 2011).
According to Hasan (2017), Compton explains the wavelength shift of
X-rays by attributing particle-like momentum to light quanta (Einstein had
proposed light quanta in 1905 to explain the photoelectric effect). The energy
of light quanta depends only on the frequency of light. Compton derived the
mathematical relationship between the wavelength shift and the X-ray
scattering angle by assuming that each X-ray photon is scattered.

h
λ 1−λ2= (1−cosθ)…………… ………(2.1)
mC

Where is:
λ 1: initial wavelength
λ 2: scattering wavelength
h: Plank constant, 6.63 x 1034 J.s
m: rest mass of electrons, 9.11 x 1031 kg
c: speed of light 3 x 109 m/s
θ : scattering angle
A type of radiation that comes from a charge tube can be referred to as
X-rays. When X-rays hit an electron, the X-rays are scattered by the electron
in all directions. The phenomenon of X-ray scattering by electrons can be
explained by Thomson scattering theory and Compton scattering theory.
There are differences between the two theories, in Thomson's theory the X-

3
rays scattered by electrons have coherent properties, which have the same
frequency as the incident X-rays,
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………

4
 4

as the incident X-rays, so it can be stated that there is no change in energy or

can be referred to as elastic scattering. Whereas in Compton theory, there is a
difference in wavelength between incident X-rays and scattered X-rays, so
that there is a change in energy or can be called non-elastic scattering
(Setianingsih, 2018).
According to Krane (2014), the compton effect is another way radiation
interacts with atoms, namely when radiation is scattered by almost free
electrons that are weakly bound to their atoms. So that some of the radiation
energy is given to the electron, so that it can escape from the atom and the
remaining energy is re-radiated as electromagnetic radiation. According to the
wave picture, the energy of the emitted radiation is less than the energy of the
incident radiation (the difference turns into the kinetic energy of the electron),
but the wavelength of both remains the same. Later we will see that the
photon concept predicts something different for scattered radiation. This
scattering process is analyzed as an interaction ("collision" in the classical
particle sense) between a photon and an electron, which we assume to be at
rest.
hc
E=hv= ………............………………..(2.2)
λ
Dengan momentumnya adalah:
E
p= …………………………………...(2.3)
c
 5

Image 2.1 Compton Scattering Geometry

(Source: Krane, 2014)
According to the quantum theory of light, photons act as particles only
when they have no rest mass. If this is true, collisions between photons and
electrons should be analyzed, for example in the same way as collisions
between billiard balls in preliminary mechanics. During the collision, the
photon is seen as a particle that loses an amount of energy equal to the kinetic
energy received by the electron (Beiser, 1982).
B. Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are one of the electromagnetic wave radiation that has a
very short wavelength (on the order of Angstrom). Gamma rays are emitted
by unstable atomic nuclei, which are radioactive. After the atomic nucleus
emits alpha α, β¬- (electrons) and β¬+ (positrons) particles, or when an
electron capture event has occurred, the nucleus which is still in an excited
state will drop to its basic state by emitting radiation in the form of gamma
(Syamsa, 2016).
Like atoms, the final nucleus will reach the ground state after emitting
one or more photons, can be in an excited state, this is known as nuclear
gamma rays. The nucleus can also be excited from the ground state to an
excited state by absorbing photons of the right energy. The energy difference
between the initial state and the final state of the nucleus which is then
reduced by a small amount of correction for the reflection or bounce energy
of the nucleus is the energy of each photon (Krane, 2014).
C. Scintilation Detector
A commonly used detector in gamma spectroscopy is the NaI(Tl)
scintillation detector. These detectors are made of materials that can emit
flashes of light when interacting with gamma rays. The efficiency of the
detector increases with increasing crystal volume while the energy resolution
depends on the manufacturing conditions at the time of crystal development.
The gamma rays entering the detector interact with the atoms of the
scintillator material according to the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering
 6

and pair production, which will produce flashes of light in the scintillator.
The light output produced by the scintillation crystal is proportional to the
energy of the gamma rays. The flashes of light by the light pipe and light
deflector are transmitted to the photocathode of the photomultiplier tube
(PMT) and then multiplied as much as possible by the electron multiplier part
of the PMT. The resulting electron current forms a voltage pulse at the input
of the preamplifier. This pulse after passing through the separator and pulse
shaper is calculated and analyzed by the Multi Channel Analyzer (MCA) with
pulse height proportional to gamma energy (Syamsa, 2016).
The most popular scintillator for detecting gamma rays is NaI (TI). It
has a density of 3.67 x 103 kg/m3, is single crystal, and is 0.75 m in diameter
and 0.25 m thick. Nal(TI) has a very high atomic number, high mass density,
and is a very large material, making it an excellent gamma radiation detector.
Nal(TI) is a poor scintillation material because it is brittle, sensitive to high
temperatures, and melts easily. In addition, it needs to be kept dry at all times
as it is hygroscopic, a small amount of potassium is always present in nal(TI),
which has a special effect due to its radioactivity. Light pulses will be
generated from the detected particles. The tube that converts the light beam
into electrical pulses after the multiplication process is the
photomultipliertube (PMT) (Ramesh, 2012)
7
 CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENT METHOD

A.Place and Time

The practicum unit "Compton Scattering" was held on Monday, March
25, 2024 at the Modern Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics, Faculty of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Makassar State University.
B.Tools and Materials
a. Tools
1. Sample holder (10 positions) 1 piece
2. NaI(Tl) detector shield of lead material 1 piece
3. BNC-BNC connector cable 1 piece
4. Radiation barrier (made of lead) 1 piece
5. USB cable 1 piece
6. MHV-MHV connector cable 1 piece
7. NaI(Tl) scintillation detector 1 piece
8. PC equipped with USX Spectrum Technique application 1 piece
9. Optical mouse 1 piece
10. Universal Computer Spectrometer (UCS30) 1 piece
11. Sample plate 1 piece
12. Pen 1 piece
13. Documentation device (smartphone) 1 piece
b. Materials
1. Gamma radioactive source Cs-137 1 piece
2. Gamma radioactive source Co-60 1 piece
3. Gamma radioactive source Na-22 1 piece
C.Work Procedure
1. Connected a high-voltage connector cable between the NaI(Tl)
scintillation detector and the UCS30 interface.
2. Connected the USB cable with the interface on the computer device.

7
Connected the Universal Computer Spectrometer (UCS30) to the voltage
source………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………

8
 8

3. Connected the Universal Computer Spectrometer (UCS30) to the voltage

source
4. Turned on the computer device, and then the USX program was run.
5. Set the 'high voltage' in the USX program to 550 volts, the ‘coarse gain' to
4, and the ‘fine gain' to 1,50.
6. Placed the Cs-137 gamma radiation source on the sample holder with lead
keeping just below the sample.
7. Clicked the "On" button on the computer screen so that the high-voltage
source could be turned on, then I clicked the "green" button.
8. Waited until the "real time" showed 200 seconds, then clicked the "off"
button, then clicked the "red" button, then calibrated.
9. The USX program is calibrated by "mouse" right-clicking, then clicking
"Energy Calibration", then clicking "3 Point Calibrate".
10. Clicked "units" to determine the unit, which is "KeV" then clicked "set".
11. Clicked "Channel' in the Photopeak initial gamma energy region, so that
numbers will automatically appear on "Channel".
12. Typed a value of 661.6 in "Energy" and clicked "Set”.
13. Repeated steps 11–12 to calibrate the energy of the Compton edge
maximum energy region and the Backscatter final gamma energy region
(in the same way as Photopeak). However, the value for the Compton edge
is 477, and backscatter is 185. Calibration is done only once.
14. Clicked the "On" button on the computer screen to start taking data for the
CS-137 gamma radiation source.
15. Observed the spectrum display on the computer screen and waited until
"real time" showed 300 seconds, then clicked the "Off" button and then
clicked the "red" button to turn off the high voltage.
16. Photographed the spectrum displayed on the computer screen to be
attached to the lab report.
17. Recorded values for Photopeak, Compton edge, and Backscatter regions
by clicking on the region in the spectrum, which immediately brings up the
value in the "channel" column.
 9

18. Repeated the experiment steps were the Cs-137 gamma radiation source
replaced with Co-60 and Na-22 radiation sources.
D. Work Principal
The working principle of the Compton Scattering experiment is using a
scintillation detector. This scintillation detector is divided into two parts,
namely the NaI(Tl) crystal (scintillator) and the photomultiplier tube (PMT).
Initially, when photons hit the crystal, there will be interactions with atoms in
the crystal. Through this interaction, photons will give up some or all of their
energy into electron motion energy, and as a result, free electrons will be
produced. Then the scintillation process will occur; this process occurs when
the scintillator atom is excitation, followed by deexcitation while emitting
light photons. The incoming particles will excite the scintillator, which will
then deexcite while emitting a glow. The glow will be forwarded to the
photocathode on the PMT. The photomultiplier tube (PMT) consists of two
parts, namely the photocathode and the electron multiplier part (dinodes). On
the photocathode, light from the scintillator will be converted into electrons
by the photocathode. These electrons are then multiplied by the dinodes,
where they are focused and accelerated towards the first dinode. During its
movement towards the first dinode, the electron gains additional energy due
to the electric field installed between the photocathode and the dinodes. Then
the electrons collide with the electrons in the first diode, and in the collision
process, other electrons will be released. The electrons that have been
multiplied in number coming out of the first diode will be accelerated
towards the second diode so that it will produce even more electrons. And so
on, so that a large number of electrons with charge are collected at the anode
and are enough to generate an electric pulse.

E. Identification of Variables
Control Variable : High voltage (V)
Coarse again
Fine gain
Manipulation Variable : Gamma Radiation Sources
 10

Response Variable : Initial Energy of Gamma E γ (keV)

Maximum Energy Emax (keV)
Final Energy of Gamma E BS (keV)

F. Operational Definition of Variables

1. High Voltage used as detector, which the unit is volt (V)
2. Coarse amplifies the voltage pulse height, so that if the course gain is increa
sed, the spectrum will shift to a higher position.
3. Fine gain provides a more precise gain value than the desired course gain v
alue.
4. Gamma Radiation Sources are a solid gamma ray that is encased in a solid t
hat is permanently encased in a capsule that is firmly bound. There are three
radioactive sources used, namely Cs-137, Co-60, and Na-22.
5. Initial Energy of Gamma E γ (keV) is the gamma energy of the source before
interacting with the NaI(Tl) crystal in the scintillation tube; this energy will
be read in the USX Spectrum Technique application, which shows the highe
st peak in the spectrum seen on the PC and is also called the Photopeak. The
unit of this Initial Energy of Gamma is kilo-electron-Volt (keV).
6. Maximum Energy Emax (keV) is the gamma energy after collision with electr
ons in NaI(Tl) crystals in the scintillation tube, where the scattered gamma d
ue to Compton scattering will leave the detector, so that the amount of energ
y detected is the kinetic energy given by electrons. This energy will be read
in the USX Spectrum Technique application, which shows a small peak in t
he spectrum with a wide distribution precisely in the Compton valley seen o
n the PC and is also called the Compton edge. The unit of this Maximum
Energy is kilo-electron-Volt (keV).
7. Final Energy of Gamma EBS (keV) is the energy that is read back at the dete
ctor due to the collision between Emax and gamma, which will then scatter t
he gamma photons in the best direction (this energy will be read in the USX
Spectrum Technique application, which shows an asymmetrical shape with
a slightly flat or slightly curved peak where the peak of this energy is the lo
 11

west energy at the peak seen on the PC and is also called the Backscatter
energy peak. The unit of this Final Energy of Gamma is kilo-electron-Volt
(keV).
G. Data Analysis Technique
1. Modern Method
a) Calculate the resting energy of electrons using the
equation

( )
2
E 2
me c =2 γ −E γ
E max

( )
2
2 Eγ
me c =2 −E γ
E γ −E BS

( )
2
E 2
me c =2 BS + EBS
E max

b) Calculate the average resting energy of electrons using

the equation
2 2 2
m e c1 +me c 2 +m e c 3
2
me c =
n

c) Calculate the percentage difference between the practical

and theoretical values of electron quiescent energy using
the equation

| |
me c 2t heory−me c 2e x perimen t
% diff = 2 2
×100 %
me c t heory + me c e x perimen t
2

d) Make a graph of me c2 as a function of the maximum

energy of the electron Emax
e) Determine the maximum velocity of the electron for each
Compton scattering event on different gamma ray sources
using the equation
 12

√(
1
v=c 1−

)
2
E max
+1
me c 2
2. Classical Method
a) Calculate the rest mass of an electron using the equation

2
2 ( 2 EY −E max )
me c =
2 Emax

b) Make a graph of me c2 as a function of the maximum

energy of the electron Emax