Contouring

Representation of relief in maps

• Contour line
– Most common method of representing relief
– Imaginary lines connecting points of equal elevation
– Are determined directly or indirectly
• Spot heights
– elevations given for critical points – peaks, sags, streams, &
highway crossings
– They can also be used in lieu of contours in relatively flat
terrain that extends over a large area.
 Contours
• A line in which the ground surface is intersected by a level surface
obtained by joining points of equal elevation. This line on a map
represents a contour and is called a contour line.
• A contour line is an imaginary line connecting points of equal
elevation. It is the most common method of representing
topography/relief in an area.
• Contours are drawn on maps by interpolating between points
whose positions and elevations have been observed and plotted.
These was initially done manually however this days it is
computerized.
 Contours
• Contour interval
– The vertical distance between level surfaces in a map
is called the contour interval.
– Only contours that are evenly divisible by the contour
interval are drawn in a topographic map
• Convention is that at least every fifth contour line
is labelled and every fifth contour line is drawn
with a heavier line.
 Contours
• Horizontal equivalent
– Horizontal distance between any adjacent
contours

– Contour interval is constant between successive

contours while horizontal equivalent varies and
depends on ground slope.
 Contouring
• The process of tracing contour lines on the
surface of the earth
– Direct
• Most accurate but slow
• Suitable for small areas
– Indirect
• Faster but less accurate
• Suitable for large areas
 Contouring
• Direct (Procedure)
– Can be performed with total station or spirit level. When using a
total station the zenith angle should be set to 90° (i.e. telescope
should be horizontal).
– In this method the HPC is found by taking a backsight to a
known point to a known point.
– Then a foresight that must be subtracted to get a specific
contour is determined by subtracting required RL.
– The staff person selects points to get the determined foresight
and will be instructed to move uphill or downhill until an
acceptable reading is observed.
 Contouring 𝐻𝑃𝐶 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝐵𝑆
𝑅𝐿 = 𝐻𝑃𝐶 − 𝐼𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑆
• Direct (Procedure) BS IS FS HPC RL
1.814 106.845 105.031
– Example:
• A backsight of 1.814m 3.845 103.000
was observed to BM1 2.845 104.000
with elevation 105.031m. 1.845 105.000
• Locate contours at a 0.845 106.000
contour interval of 1m.
• For a 4m staff this would 𝐻𝑃𝐶 = 105.031 − 1.814 = 106.845
be 103m, 104m, 105m 𝐼𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑆 = 106.845 − 103 = 3.845
and 106m contours.
𝐼𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑆 = 106.845 − 104 = 2.845
 Contouring
• Indirect
– Points are located and surveyed on the ground. The points
are not necessarily contours but are spot levels.
– Elevation of points measured by spirit levelling or
trigonometrical levelling
– To get contours the points are plotted and contours drawn
by interpolation
– The points are input into a computer to create a surface
model of the area through interpolation and then contours
• Interpolation methods
– By estimation
• Points are estimated roughly and contours lines drawn
– Arithmetic calculation
• Tedious but accurate method for small areas
– Graphical method
– Computer aided
• Creates a Triagulated Irregular Network (TIN) then a DEM or
DTM
• Estimation
• Arithmetic calculation
 Characteristics of contours
• Contours will never cross each other
• The distance between contours indicates the steepness of the
slope. Steep slopes are shown by contours that are close to each
other. Gentle slopes are shown by contours further apart from each
other.
• Contour lines must close on themselves either on or off a map
• A contour cannot branch into two contours of same elevation.
• Irregular contours signify rough terrain, smooth contours signify
more uniformly rolling terrain.
• Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s, if they
cross a ridge they point down the ridge and form U’s.
 Steep
close
spacing
Gentle
wide
separation
Contours of different
elevations never meet
except on a vertical surface
such as a cliff, wall or
natural bridge. They cross
only in the rare case of a
cave or overhanging shelf
Concave slope
Contours are closely
spaced at the top and
widely spaced at the
bottom

Convex slope
Contours are widely
spaced at the top and
closely spaced at the
bottom
Use of contours