Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Global Food Security

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gfs

Climate change through a gendered lens: Examining livestock holder

food security
Sarah L. McKune a,d,n, Erica C. Borresen b, Alyson G. Young c, Thérèse D Auria Ryley c,
Sandra L. Russo d, Astou Diao Camara e, Meghan Coleman b, Elizabeth P. Ryan b,nn
a
Department of Epidemiology College of Public Health and Health Professions College of Medicine University of Florida, 1225 Center Drive, PO Box 100182,
Gainesville, FL 32610-0182, USA
b
Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences Colorado State University, Colorado
School of Public Health, 200W, Lake Street, 1680 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1680, USA
c
Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
d
University of Florida International Center, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
e
L’Institut Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole, Route de Hydrocarbures Bel-air BP 3120, Dakar, Senegal

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Livestock holders experience increased food insecurity because of climate change. We argue that de-
Received 5 September 2014 velopment programs, public health specialists, and practitioners must critically examine gendered im-
Received in revised form pacts of climate change to improve food security of livestock producers. This review illustrates the dif-
17 May 2015
ferential experiences of men and women and how vulnerability, adaptive capacity, exposure and sen-
Accepted 25 May 2015
sitivity to climatic stimuli are gendered in distinct ways between and among livestock holding com-
munities. We propose a gendered conceptual framework for understanding the impact of climate change
Keywords: on food security among livestock holders, which highlights potential pathways of vulnerability and
Food security points of intervention to consider in global health strategies for improving household food security.
Climate change
& 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
Livestock
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Gender
Vulnerability

1. Introduction agricultural systems, livestock contributions to sustainable liveli-

hoods, food security, and nutrition have become increasingly un-
Climate change is a socioeconomic and environmental problem predictable with accelerations in climate change (Morton, 2007).
that receives attention for its impact on global food security. Cli- Much like crop and aquaculture systems, livestock systems are
mate-change related risks to livestock-based livelihoods include subject to risk from instability in weather and damage from ex-
decreases in crop yields and crop failure, livestock loss, increased treme events such as heat stress, drought, and flooding (Jones and
water scarcity, and destruction of other productive assets (see FAO, Thornton, 2009). There is limited research into the direct effects of
2008). This paper focuses on the nexus of gender, livestock pro- climate change across diverse livestock production systems, de-
duction, and food security. spite similarities in smallholder livelihoods and productivity risks.
Livestock systems are rapidly changing. Dynamic parts of the Extensive research on gender, in regards to food security or
agricultural economy, especially in developing nations where de- climate change, suggests that pre-existing social stratifications
mand for animal products continues to increase. Globally, more exacerbate the negative impacts of climate change on food se-
than 60 percent of rural households keep livestock (FAO, 2009a); curity (Weiler et al., 2014). The relative dearth of research on how
smallholder livestock production in many developing countries climate change influences dynamics between livestock production,
provides income, food, fuel, building materials, draft power, and gender relations, and food security calls for conceptual frame-
fertilizer for the general population. As with other smallholder works to improve our understanding of the mechanisms under-
lying effective adaptations. This review examines how gender in-
n
fluences climate related vulnerability of food security among li-
Corresponding author. Fax: þ 1 352 273 6199.
nn
Corresponding author. Fax: þ 1 970 491 7569.
vestock holders. By applying a gendered lens to an existing fra-
E-mail addresses: smckune@ufl.edu (S.L. McKune), mework, we link climate change to food security and highlight
[email protected] (E.P. Ryan). gendered pathways of vulnerability. By identifying key points of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2015.05.001
2211-9124/& 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2 S.L. McKune et al. / Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8

intersection between gender and vulnerability, practitioners can established threat of climate change to food security may disrupt
use the framework to promote appropriate climate change adap- any one of these dimensions (Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007).
tation activities in international research and development Drought and flooding associated with changes in rainfall patterns
initiatives. may reduce agricultural production, limiting the availability of
food. Climate variations can contribute to the spread of infectious
diseases in livestock, compromising their health and limiting the
2. Application of cross-cutting terms and conceptualizing safety and availability of animal products for food. Increased fre-
relationships quency and severity of extreme events affect fodder and water
availability for livestock, and reduce access to food for people who
We provide working definitions for the following terms to fa- rely on market exchange of animal products for grains (Battisti and
cilitate cross-disciplinary use and application of this conceptual Naylor, 2009). Researchers and practitioners often disregard the
framework. final dimension of food security–consumption—in climate change
discussions despite links between climate-related environmental
 Adaptation: Adjustment or preparation of natural/ human change and issues central to consumption. The time women allo-
systems to a new/changing environment in order to moderate cate to household labor is associated with both climate change and
harm or exploit beneficial opportunities (EPA, 2013). choices about childcare and has a direct effect on household nu-
 Climate change: Significant changes in the measures of climate trition. A woman with increased demands on her time may spend
lasting for an extended period of time, including temperature, less time breastfeeding or initiate complementary feeding at an
precipitation, or wind patterns that occur over several decades earlier age, consequently reducing consumption of appropriate
or longer in a given geographic area (EPA, 2013). food by younger children. Even when food is available, accessible,
 Gender: The socially constructed norms, roles, and behaviors and consumed, climate change may affect the nutrient density or
for men and women in a society. Gender determines social the safety of food and fodder. Models predict that the effects of
expectations for men and women, as well as access to re- climate change will lead to a 55% increase in severe stunting in
sources. This is distinct from the concept of sex, which refers to sub-Saharan Africa by 2050 (Lloyd et al., 2011). Dwindling live-
the biological and physiological characteristics (WHO, 2013). stock numbers, lowered agricultural productivity, and poor crop
 Livestock: Any domestic or domesticated animal–bovine (in- yields associated with climate change can leave individuals and
cluding buffalo and bison), ovine, porcine, caprine, equine, households in a calorie and nutrient deficient state.
poultry and bees raised for food or in the production of food. Although over the long-term, climate change occurs in con-
Does not include wild animals captured from hunting or fishing junction with changes and improvements in public infrastructure
(FAO, 2001). to rural areas (rural water supplies, electrification) and urban
 Livestock Holder: A member of a community that incorporates technologies that can improve food security and household nu-
livestock rearing as a necessary component to their livelihood. trition, new climate-related phenomena continue to emerge that
We use this concept broadly to include pastoral populations, undermine food security and highlight the relevance of research
farming and communities who own and manage livestock. directed at understanding the mechanisms linking human-in-
 Malnutrition: A broad term for nutritional status that includes duced climate change to disparities in women's workloads,
both under-nutrition and over-nutrition. Under-nutrition stems household health, and resource security.
from inadequate calories, protein, or micronutrients for growth
and maintenance or inability to fully utilize nutrients. Over-
nutrition stems from excess calories, and nutrients beyond 4. Livestock holders
what the body requires for normal growth and metabolism
(UNICEF, 2009). The FAO estimates that livestock products provide roughly one-
 Mitigation: Intervention to reduce human impact on the cli- fifth of total caloric intake and half of total protein consumed in
mate system, encompasses strategies to reduce greenhouse gas developing countries (FAO, 2009b). Livestock holders are more
emissions and sources, and enhance greenhouse gas sinks (EPA, likely to consume meat and other nutrient significant animal
2013). products, such as milk and eggs, than non-livestock holders be-
 Pastoralism: Livelihood strategy that derives more than half of cause of their increased proximity and access to animal-based
household income from livestock and livestock products. nutrient rich foods (Leroy and Frongillo, 2007). Livestock are also a
 Resiliency: The capability to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, source of income, traction, fuel and fertilizer (FAO, 2011). Many
and recover from multi-hazard threats with minimum damage traditionally crop-based agricultural communities have shifted to
to social well-being, the economy, and the environment (EPA, livestock production to mitigate the adverse effects of climate
2013). change (Jones and Thornton, 2009). A study in southern Mali
 Urban Livestock Agriculture: Livelihood based on raising an- found that crop producers stress the importance of livestock
imals for food and other uses (e.g., selling at markets) within production as a livelihood strategy for coping with climate change
and around cities (de Bon et al., 2010). (Ebi et al., 2011). Among traditional livestock holders, adaptations
 Vulnerability: The degree that systems (e.g., households, to climate change include shifts in herding strategies, such as re-
communities, and organizations) are susceptible to loss, da- ductions in herd size and changes to herd composition, and
mage, suffering and death in the event of a ‘natural' hazard or changing settlement patterns. Research indicates that these coping
disaster (Adger, 2006). mechanisms only work in certain circumstances. Pedersen and
Benjaminsen (2008) found that the diversification of livelihoods
associated with sedentarization of transhumant herders had a
significant negative impact on food security. Typically, livestock
3. Food security products are exchanged at a lower calorie per kilogram (kcal/kg)
value than cereals, creating a favorable exchange for livestock
There are three hierarchical dimensions which must be assured holders who trade for grains. When harvests are poor, this ad-
in achieving food security: nutritious and culturally appropriate vantage backfires as kcal/kg values of grain rise significantly. Li-
food must be available, accessible, and consumed. The well- vestock holders exchange their livestock quickly to avoid animal
 S.L. McKune et al. / Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8 3

Fig. 1. Climate change related vulnerability to loss of food security among livestock holders. This conceptual framework is adapted from Füssel (2007) who provides a fully
qualified characterization of the factors influencing vulnerability. Thus, the workings and mechanisms here are not new, but have been tailored to vulnerability among
livestock holders.

losses to starvation and disease, therefore exchanging more kcal/ crop agriculture. Pastoralists herd livestock in rural and peri-urban
kg of livestock product for significantly less of cereals. During areas where access to natural resources, namely water and grazing
environmental disaster, livestock holders can be more vulnerable land, is limited. Pastoralists, often characterized as mobile and
to food security than their agricultural counterparts because of with limited access to markets and social services, are highly adept
limited economic access to food and unfavorable market exchange at using flexible herding strategies and extensive social networks
rates (Nori et al., 2005). to cope with the variable nature of their environment. This
Füssel (2007) proposes a generic conceptual framework of adaptability, however, does not render their livelihood infallible. In
vulnerability. Building from an extensive review of the vulner- many communities, climate-related events increase the flexibility
ability literature (Adger and Kelly, 1999), he categorizes various required of pastoral communities. Women with limited decision
conceptualizations of vulnerability, arguing that none of the four making or economic power in these pastoral communities are
groups of vulnerability factors sufficiently capture the range of particularly vulnerable because they occupy a marginal position in
vulnerability concepts that need be addressed in the context of society (Glazenbrook, 2011).
climate change (Füssel, 2007; Füssel and Klein, 2004). Thus, he According to Reid et al. (2014), there are a number of pastoralist
proposes a conceptual framework that includes nomenclature for communities that have identified innovative strategies for mana-
describing any vulnerable situation in terms of the system, the ging rangelands, created new opportunities for livelihood di-
hazard, the attribute of concern, and a temporal reference and a versification, and developed unique mechanisms for bolstering
classification of vulnerability factors, which includes internal so- adaptive capacity in challenging environments. The diversity of
cioeconomic, internal biophysical, external socioeconomic, and pastoral strategies (and variation in the effectiveness of) for re-
external biophysical factors (Fig. 1). sponding to climate-related hazards further emphasizes the need
Climate change is a continual force of livelihood change, as for research and development that is sensitive to local context,
increases in unpredictable and atypical weather patterns affect including the ways that gender influences individual flexibility
communities globally. This includes escalations in frequency and within an adaptive system (see also Galvin, 2009).
severity of extreme events and more gradual increases in tem-
perature and CO2. As we detail in later sections, these manifesta-
4.2. Agropastoralists
tions of climate change are both directly and indirectly affecting
livestock holders across a range of livelihoods: pastoralists, for
Agropastoral populations are diverse. Some divide household
whom migration and herd management are key livelihood prac-
tices; agro-pastoralists, who tend to have smaller herds and rely at members between a fixed settlement and satellite camps with
least in part on crop production; and urban livestock holders, who migratory herds. Others come from communities that have his-
incorporate herds into a range of livelihood practices in peri-ur- torically cultivated crops and have not previously relied heavily
ban, urban, and slum environments. Thus, livestock holders from upon livestock production (Jones and Thornton, 2009). A study of
nomadic and settled communities with varied herd compositions smallholder agriculturalists' adaptations to climate change in
and intensification strategies must all be included in the con- southern Mali was conducted as part of USAID efforts to in-
versation about and responses surrounding the impact of climate corporate climate change adaptations into development work. One
change on food security. major finding was the importance of livestock production as a li-
velihood strategy. Their suggestions for adaptation focus on ad-
4.1. Pastoralism vancing community capacity for raising livestock and improving
harvests (Ebi et al., 2011).
Pastoralism is a historically resilient livelihood strategy that is Agropastoralists have small landholdings where many rent the
often practiced in ecological systems that are too poor to support land they cultivate rather than owning it. They often lack
4 S.L. McKune et al. / Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8

additional resources, including labor and inputs. Livestock rearing 5. Gender dynamics
contributes directly to food access and availability for small-
holders. While smallholders may consume some of the food pro- Marcoux (1998) points out the importance of systematic em-
ducts made available by their livestock, they often choose to sell pirical data for untangling the relationship between gender and
animal products of higher value (milk and eggs), in order to pur- poverty. This is particularly true when examining how gender and
chase lower-cost staples. Their livestock may play an indirect role poverty influence adaptive responses to climate change among
in determining food security through income generation (FAO, livestock holders. A gendered approach to understanding the im-
2009a). pact of climate change is not new in the environment and devel-
opment literature (Brody and Esplen, 2008; Chindarkar, 2012;
Fordham, 2004; Marcoux, 1998; Meinzen-Dick et al., 2014; Qui-
4.3. Urban livestock holders
sumbing and Pandolfelli, 2010). However, much of the early work
regarding gender and vulnerability to climate change focused on
Urban and peri-urban communities that keep livestock have
small-scale crop farming, rather than on women's roles in live-
largely been left out of the conversation about climate change
stock keeping thus limiting the information available on under-
vulnerabilities. The informal nature of land tenure in some con-
standing adaptation to climate change among livestock holders
texts, such as urban slums or recently settled communities, can
(Thornton et al., 2003).
lead to invisibility and lack of voice. However, historically mobile Until recently, a nuanced understanding of gendered patterns
livestock herders are using settlement as an adaptive strategy, and of livestock management was limited by lack of sex-disaggregated
historically sedentary livestock holders are using migration to ur- data on livestock ownership. Additionally, the predominance of
ban, peri-urban, or slum settings as an additional adaptive strat- studies comparing male and female-headed households as a proxy
egy. Urban livestock holders have limited access to inputs and for gender relationships, rather than systematically looking at
services, and limited land rights. They are often comprised of variation in individual livestock ownership and management
newly-sedentarized pastoral groups, a population whose vulner- provided incomplete information (Brody and Esplen, 2008). These
abilities are well documented. Discussion surrounding livestock in issues are exacerbated by the complexity of livestock value chains
African slums has evolved from one of resistance, based on con- and the fact that “ownership” of animals does not always translate
cerns of zoonotic disease transmission and animals feeding on into control over marketing and decision-making about animal
waste, towards one of acceptance and an embraced reality. The products. Land ownership and agricultural decision-making are
transition in sentiment comes from many levels of government commonly linked in the literature on smallholder farming (Qui-
and greater recognition of the nutrient cycling, production effi- sumbing and Pandolfelli, 2010), but we generally lack systematic
ciency with shorter travel distance for perishable products, im- data on patterns of male and female ownership and decision-
proved household nutritional security, and market value. making among livestock holders. While research among certain

Table 1
A gendered approach to understanding how climate change is affecting dimensions of food security across a spectrum of livestock holding livelihood groups.

Livelihood Gendered Pathways of Climate Change Impact on Food Security

Economic Health Nutrition

Pastoral ↑ time demand on women for collection of ↑ risk of disease due to proximity of women’s ↑ undernutrition due to ↓ availability of certain
water and fuel work to reservoirs of disease agents and biologic plant and animal species
risk
↑ time demand on men to seek out water ↑ vulnerability to maternal mortality due to ↑ ↑ undernutrition due to separation of family
sources with herd fertility associated with sedentarization members from milk producing animals
↑ productive and reproductive demands on ↓ mental and emotional health due to increased ↑ undernutrition due to unfavorable terms of
women due to new coping mechanisms and burden and loss of social support trade between animal products and grains
livelihood modifications
↓ financial autonomy of women due to prob-
able liquidation of small animal assets
Agro-pastoral ↑ time demand on women due to migration of ↑ vulnerability of newly sedentarized house- ↑ risk of food insecurity due to ↓ production of
men for herding or wage labor holds, particularly women livestock and ↑ prices of grains and other foods,
particularly in women and children
↓ financial autonomy of women due to prob- Earlier weaning, shortened birth intervals, and ↑ exposure to foods that have become spoiled
able liquidation of small animal assets risk of maternal depletion due to migration of
men for herding or wage labor
↑ constraints on herd management due to ↑ incidence of anemia and stunting in children Diets may become less varied and less nutritious
shifts in household herd management
responsibilities
↑ susceptibility to infectious diseases that are
sensitive to climate change
Urban livestock ↑ vulnerability and poverty due to increased ↓ access to clean water, adequate sanitation, and ↑ food insecurity due to higher food prices and
holders population growth and lack of employment sufficient living areas loss of income
opportunities
↑ susceptibility to market fluctuations based ↑ child mortality rates ↑ malnutrition, including overnutrition
on animal foods supply from pastoral/agro-
pastoral communities
↓ access to inputs ↑ incidences of infectious diseases (e.g. diarrhea, Shift towards unhealthier dietary patterns
respiratory diseases, and malaria)
Urban nutrient cycling of food waste as to ↑ incidences of chronic diseases (e.g. heart dis- ↑ affordability, accessibility and availability of
animal feed ease, diabetes) processed foods that are poor in nutrient value
↑ levels of stress and depression ↓ transportation time may improve perishability
and enhance food safety
 S.L. McKune et al. / Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8 5

livestock holders indicates that female ownership or co-ownership advances, there is a need for further systematic research that ex-
correlated with greater intake of animal source foods and im- amines the mechanisms shaping individual experiences of climate
proved child nutrition outcomes (Jin and Lannotti, 2014), the change among livestock holders and provides a detailed view of
dearth of systematic data on gendered knowledge, ownership, and the nexus between gender, climate change, and food security.
management of animals has thus far limited our ability to design Table 1 describes some of the gendered mechanisms by which
and implement interventions that bolster resilience. climate change is affecting certain dimensions of food security in
Furthermore, the combination of limited systematic data on pastoral, agro-pastoral, and urban livestock holding communities.
diversity in women's livestock ownership patterns, knowledge,
and management strategies and overall lack of attention to gender
in the climate change literature has often resulted in an over- 6. Vulnerability to climate change
simplification of women and men's experience of climate-change
related events. For example, Resurrección (2013) and Arora-Jons- Based on the proposed conceptual framework (Fig. 1), we
son (2011) identify the persistence of discourse on the link be- identify factors in livestock holder vulnerability, sensitivity, ex-
tween women and environment in climate change literature and posure, adaptability and capacity to respond to climate stimuli,
fundamental categorization of women as either “victims or vir- illustrating pathways for development of interventions to reduce
tuous” actors (Arora-Jonsson, 2011: 745) in climate-change related vulnerability. To demonstrate, factors that influence vulnerability
events. Yet, the recent fluorescence of literature on the nexus of of a pastoral household to climate change may include the com-
climate change, gender and food security (see Kristjanson et al., position of social networks, nutritional status, terms of trade in
2014 and Ringler et al., 2014) for recent comprehensive reviews) market exchange, and annual rainfall patterns. Combined, these
suggests significant diversity in coping strategies employed by (alongside other factors) determine a household's vulnerability to
both men and women in response to climate-related hazards and climate change and adaptive capacity. Defined as “the ability to
threats to food security. design and implement effective adaptation strategies, or to react to
There are female livestock holders who are acutely vulnerable evolving hazards and stresses so as to reduce the likelihood of the
to the effects of climate change on resource availability. Dankel- occurrence and/or the magnitude of harmful outcomes resulting
man (2002) identifies that extreme weather events can reduce the from climate-related hazards” (Brooks et al., 2005), adaptive ca-
local availability of food, increasing women's workloads and un- pacity of pastoral households is directly affected by climate
dermining their ability to support the household. Women in pas- change. Pastoralist livelihoods are often able to respond dynami-
toral communities can be vulnerable when they have limited de- cally to the highly variable nature of their environment. Some
cision-making or economic power and/or occupy a marginal social important adaptive strategies of pastoral populations include
position. Wangui (2014) noted that women most vulnerable to mobility, herd management strategies (de-stocking, splitting
climate change effects among Maasai are individuals with limited herds, recuperating herds after crisis through family loans), live-
power and agency, bearing significant responsibility for procuring lihood diversification (artisan work, seasonal gardens), and set-
and preparing household food resources. Though, the experiences tlement. Pastoral households may also send a family member to
of Kenyan women in livestock-holding communities do not re- work out of town or country, in hopes of receiving remittances.
present the experience of all women. Meinzen-Dick et al. (2014) However, local sociopolitical environments and their imposi-
and others point out that there is diversity in gendered experi- tions on pastoral coping mechanisms can exacerbate the toll of
ences of both men and women. This is substantiated by a study in consecutive and sometimes chronic environmental shocks asso-
India (Ram et al., 2013) which found that women's role in deci- ciated with climate change. Many pastoralists experience heigh-
sion-making surrounding the sale of livestock increases sig- tened exposure to climate change and its consequences because
nificantly during periods of stress. they live in semi-arid and arid regions where climate change is
Gender disparities in resource allocation and power can change having its greatest impact. In addition, they are highly sensitive to
over time. Climate-change related events affect the dynamics of climatic stimuli because of the complex interdependency of live-
gender roles and behavior in various ways across communities and stock, ecosystem and human health that defines pastoralism. As a
households. In some instances men and women take on activities result, climate change has considerably increased the level of
and roles in which they were not previously engaged (Djoudi and flexibility required of pastoral communities, while social struc-
Brockhaus, 2011) or experience increases and/or significant re- tures, political policy, and economic change have simultaneously
distributions in workload (such as defacto female headed house- limited the historical adaptive capacity of these communities
holds) as climate change events impact livelihood strategies, de- (Blackwell, 2010). This pushes many pastoral communities to the
cisions about settlement, and patterns of labor migration (Chin- limits of their adaptive capacity.
darkar, 2012; Ram et al., 2013; Wangui, 2014). Participation in urban livestock production is becoming a more
The key point is that local gender dynamics shape the contours common strategy for income generation and household food se-
of vulnerability and the effects of climate change at the commu- curity in cities. It can be beneficial to poor and vulnerable groups
nity, household, and individual level. Men and women play dis- by bolstering social safety nets, diversifying herd environments,
tinct, yet dynamic, roles in livestock holding communities, ex- increasing financial security, and increasing access to animal pro-
pressing control and decision-making authority over different ducts and ability to utilize local resources (Richards and Godfrey,
animal resources, economic tasks, and even bodies of knowledge, 2003). However, these livelihoods play a role in contributing to
all of which vary with local context. Recent research by Kristjanson human-induced climate change, not only by greenhouse-gas
et al. (2014) on gender, asset management, and climate change is a emissions from livestock production (McMichael et al., 2007), but
definite step towards improving our understanding of gender and also through normal urbanization practices that include increased
vulnerability to climate change. Swaminathan and colleagues have motor vehicles and increased purchases of waste products (e.g.
also published an extensive set of working papers and other ma- plastic). The concept of urban livestock production in developing
terials on household asset management (including livestock) as countries is being seen in a more positive light by local govern-
part of the Gender Asset Gap Project (see Deere et al., 2013 and ments, yet the long-term impacts on climate change and food
Doss et al., 2013 for an overview of the multicounty comparison of security are not well understood. Research is needed to under-
wealth and household decision-making as well as a discussion of stand the effects of this livestock holder livelihood strategy on
methods for assessing gender and household assets). Despite these adaptive capacity and sustainability of food security.
6 S.L. McKune et al. / Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8

7. Applying a gendered lens inequalities and involve both men and women in finding solutions
that address variability in adaptive response to climate change. In
“Women have varying roles in food systems in different parts of Fig. 2, we re-conceptualize the vulnerability framework presented
the world. Effective planning for adaptation should anticipate the in Fig. 1 by explicitly considering how gender influences climate-
consequences on gender-specific workloads and effects on existing related risks to food security.
inequalities between men and women both within households Fig. 2 illustrates how applying a gender lens to our adaptation
and communities. Institutional and social changes are often es- of Füssel's conceptual framework can help identify specific path-
sential elements of adaptation.” (Bereuter et al., 2014). ways of vulnerability in livestock holding households. This dia-
Gender mainstreaming, the intentional strategic action used by gram has been has been populated with examples of how adaptive
policymakers to reduce gender-based discrimination, has been a capacity, adaptation strategies, and sensitivity and exposure to
key discourse in global efforts to ensure human rights for women climatic stimuli vary between men and women and emphasizes
(Preet et al., 2010). Incorporating gender into the development of the ways in which gender can exacerbate the threat that climate
policies and legislation is an ongoing process and, consequently, change presents to food security among livestock-holding women
must be continually initiated as new issues arise, including the and their families. Use of this gendered framework can help de-
impacts of climate change on food security of livestock holders. velopment practitioners and researchers identify specific me-
Gender-based discrimination is intensified by and intensifies pre- chanisms and pathways of vulnerability to be targeted, limiting
existing community adversity – the effects of climate change being threats to food security and promoting positive adaptations and
no exception. Birks and colleagues succinctly articulate, “by in- responses among livestock holding communities.
corporating a gendered lens, the pernicious nature of gender- We detail how this gender analytic approach has been utilized
based differentials in power is brought to light, revealing variable in projects associated with the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for
manifestations of gender-based discrimination” (Birks et al., 2011). Adapting Livestock Systems to Climate Change at Colorado State
Failure to acknowledge and engage the unique experiences and University. Two specific examples from the Innovation Lab illus-
perspectives of women on the part of researchers and policy trate the importance of applying a gender lens to research and
makers reinforces gender inequity (Glazenbrook, 2011). development in livestock holding communities and how tradi-
Nonetheless, a gendered approach to understanding and re- tional agricultural practices can be leveraged to reduce climate-
sponding to issues associated with climate change is not being related risks to food security.
systematically applied despite significant research indicating that: “Poultry skills for improving rural livelihoods”, led by David Bunn
(a) climate change differentially impacts poor, women and chil- from University of California-Davis, was conducted in rural Nepal
dren (Alderman, 2010), (b) the local context of gender roles, atti- and Tanzania. Educational programs were focused on animal dis-
tudes and norms play an important role in shaping patterns of ease prevention and improved husbandry practices. This approach
vulnerability to climate change (Glazenbrook, 2011), and is anticipated to reestablish healthy chicken flocks, which are in-
(c) climate change will disproportionately impact nutritional sta- tended to improve nutritional outcomes and financial stability in
tus of poor and otherwise vulnerable populations (Alderman, these impoverished communities. Examining poultry production
2010; Blackwell, 2010; Lloyd et al., 2011). Existing gender in- using a gendered perspective in this context highlights the im-
equalities are likely to intensify with increases in climate change portance of women's contribution to raising chickens and selling
related phenomena (Denton, 2002). Women and men have dif- eggs. It also provides a framework for understanding how women
ferent capacity to cope with these changes. Greater emphasis can benefit most from learning how to raise healthy chickens in
needs to be placed in research on how to support women in the face of climate-change related increases in disease and
adapting to climate change related events because they play a drought. This project shows that in these impoverished areas,
crucial role in household labor, livestock keeping, food security strengthening adaptation strategies that emphasize improving
and nutrition. Climate change mitigation must assess gender women's ability to care for chickens, helps improve household

Fig. 2. Influence of gender on climate-change related vulnerability to loss of food security among livestock holders. Examples given in italics are meant to be demonstrative, not
exhaustive.
 S.L. McKune et al. / Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8 7

food security, especially for women and children. climate change (exceptions being Omolo (2010) and Wangui
“Strengthening Tanzanian livestock health and pastoralist nutri- (2014)). This research highlights several risk pathways for food
tion and livelihoods in a changing climate, led by Jonna Mazet, security among livestock holders, and how an emergence of live-
targets agropastoralists in the Ruaha region of Tanzania who face stock holders in urban communities should be understood for
challenges from climate-related changes in the prevalence of an- vulnerability in times of crisis.
imal diseases and increased scarcity of natural resources (Mazet
et al., 2009). This team developed gender appropriate educational 8.4. Engage women in livestock-focused agricultural extension
programs and techniques to improve livestock health and liveli- activities
hoods of livestock holders. Developing programs that extend to
women and children is critical for sustainability of adaptation Women's needs must be identified and supported. Develop-
strategies and demonstrates the role that gender plays in the up- ment activities that plan to improve food security through live-
take of community interventions. Mazet's project also brings a stock should engage women in livestock-focused extension activ-
series of questions to the forefront about the role of gender in ities. Women's interests, constraints, and support for developing
achieving food and nutrition security. Namely, how much time appropriate adaptive strategies may vary from men's given the
does it take for collection of water and fuel, how is this time al- gendered experience of climate change.
located between household members, and how does it affect
household nutrition and food security? What environmental ex- 8.5. Identify approaches to increase legal ownership and assets of
posures are unique to this environment and how does exposure livestock for women
differ for men and women? Could education programs on food
security and nutrition targeted towards women be integrated with Female ownership of livestock has direct, significant positive
trainings focused on helping men with animal nutrition and impact on the food and nutritional status of families. Future re-
disease? search and development activities should engage new and in-
novative approaches to increase female ownership of and deci-
sion-making concerning livestock.
8. Recommendations for development initiatives
8.6. Develop protocols for climate researchers, including meteor-
Effective assessment of international research and develop- ological scientists, to help them understand and engage gender dy-
ment projects focused on the effects of climate change on food namics in their work
security requires a gendered approach. Using a gendered frame-
work to understand climate-related variability in food security Research is underway to integrate gender analytics into climate
among livestock holders highlights the role gender plays in research, yet physical scientists are only beginning to seek out
shaping the mechanisms and pathways by which climate change engagement, thus missing opportunities to improve outcomes. As
can affect food availability, accessibility and consumption. The indicated by the World Meteorological Organization's (WMO)
following is a list of implications from this research that empha- November 2014 meeting that focused on gender, there are recent
size the importance of developing context and gender-specific shifts which point to (1) a new willingness among climate scien-
strategies for mediating the effects of climate change in interna- tists to analyze the role of gender in their work and (2) a re-
tional research and development initiatives conducted among li- cognition among them regarding the impact that gender analysis
vestock-holders. has on their own desired outcomes. The development of protocols
for specific target audiences (e.g. meteorologists, climate scientists,
8.1. Use gender analytical tools to assess climate impacts climate adaptation researchers, etc. (see McOmber et al., 2013)
outline how and why to integrate gender analysis into these dis-
Using a gender lens (i.e., gender analysis) among livestock ciplines. Significantly improved outcomes are expected when
holding populations experiencing climate change reveals dis- gender is effectively integrated into research and practice.
parities in vulnerability between men and women, as well as in-
tersections with other categories which can exacerbate vulner-
ability. Gender analysis facilitates improved understanding of local 9. Concluding remarks/implications
contexts and development of appropriate interventions that yield
maximum impact. This article discusses the timely topic of gender relations and
its influence on climate-related vulnerability of food security
8.2. Include urban and peri-urban livestock holders in discussions of among livestock holders. While there is a vast amount of literature
climate change impacts discussing connections between gender and food security, food
security and climate change, and gender and climate change, this
The growth of the global population is forcing geographic shifts review connected these three components, as a nexus with live-
in risk and vulnerability, including urban inhabitants whose live- stock holder livelihoods. As livestock holders take on new strate-
lihoods and access to foods may suffer from extreme weather gies to adapt to climate change, it is important to understand how
events and rising food prices. Changing centers of production also these adaptations are accepted and incorporated into the liveli-
impact the livelihoods of agricultural workers as production hoods of various stakeholders.
changes in response to climate variability. This continues to be an Additionally, we expand Füssel's conceptual framework to
area of important research as global population migration in- highlight a gendered lens that identifies pathways to vulnerability
creases the number of urban residents. of food security among livestock holders to climate change. Global
health practitioners, nutritionists, and climatologists working to
8.3. Make explicit the links between livestock production, gender, improve food security and adaptations to climate change can use
climate change, and food security this framework to define and identify factors increasing livestock
holder vulnerability, such as adaptive capacity, adaptive strategies,
Livestock holders in general have been largely under-re- and sensitivity and exposure to climate stimuli. Mechanisms that
presented in the literature that examines the gendered impact of link climate change to vulnerability allow for improvements in
8 S.L. McKune et al. / Global Food Security 6 (2015) 1–8

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