THE RELATIONSHIP OF INDIVIDUAL INTRINSIC CAPACITY WITH JOB
SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND PERCEIVED LIFE
BALANCE: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE INTRINSIC COACHING®
METHODOLOGY
by
Rosalind R. Ward
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APRIL BOYINGTON WALL, Ph.D., Faculty Mentor and Chair
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BILL REED, Ph.D., Committee Member
LEON POMEROY, Ph.D., Committee Member
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Kurt Linberg, Ph.D., Dean, School of Business & Technology
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A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
October 2008
3329852
Copyright 2008 by
Ward, Rosalind R.
All rights reserved
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3329852
2008
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© Rosalind Ward, 2008
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Abstract
The field of worksite health promotion is in need of a new direction and broader scope.
Additionally, although the importance of having intrinsically motivated employees is
widely discussed, best practices for fostering intrinsic motivation have not been
established. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine whether intrinsic
capacity was associated with other measures of job performance and perceived life
balance and what relationship exists with Intrinsic Coaching®. Sixteen people
participated in this exploratory study using a pre-post mixed methods research design
with the twelve-week Intrinsic Coach® Development Series (ICDS) as the intervention.
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Additionally, telephonic interview responses were compared with completed Life
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Balance Wheel assessments to determine if the Life Balance Wheel is a valid instrument.
Results of this study indicate the ICDS increased intrinsic capacity, allowing people to
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gain greater clarity about themselves and to be more effective in directing their lives. The
relationship of intrinsic capacity with organizational commitment and job satisfaction
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was inconclusive; however everyone described having better outcomes at work and in
their daily lives as a result of increased intrinsic capacity, including a general sense of
improved overall life balance and reduced stress when handling stressful situations. Study
results also indicate engagement and productivity at work is related to the degree one’s
values are being supported and intrinsic needs are met. Finally, the Life Balance Wheel
appears to provide an accurate depiction of perceived life balance and satisfaction with
different areas of life. However, the thinking behind completing the assessment may be
more significant than the scores themselves. These research findings indicate that health
has minimal impact on productivity compared to the extent individual intrinsic needs are
met; thus, organizations should focus on creating a culture where people are appreciated
and valued for their unique contributions and should implement strategies to support
employees in finding meaning at work. Future research studies should include larger
sample sizes and should compare Intrinsic Coaching® with other coaching methodologies
and strengths-based approaches to change to determine if Intrinsic Coaching® is unique
with its impact on intrinsic capacity or if other approaches are also effective in increasing
intrinsic capacity.
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Dedication
I dedicate this effort to my husband, Dave Ward, for his unwavering love, support and
encouragement throughout this challenging and sometimes brutal journey. Without his
patience and belief in me and my research, I never could have kept going to complete this
process. Thank you! I hope to return the favor for you; we make a great team!
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Acknowledgments
To Dr. April Boyington Wall, my faculty mentor and dissertation chair, thank you
for guiding me every step of the way during this lengthy journey. Your support and
encouragement helped me stay on track – even when I was faced with multiple
roadblocks. Even when I sometimes felt the obstacles were too great, you created a space
for me to stay excited about my research and stay passionate enough to continue.
To my dissertation committee, Dr. William Reed and Dr. Leon Pomeroy, thank
you for your insightful feedback and suggestions along the way. I appreciate your
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patience, time and guidance throughout this journey.
To Dr. Art Ellis, thank you for guiding me through understanding the Hartman
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Value Profile, scoring and interpreting my data. Without your guidance and expertise, I
never could have finished my research.
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To Christina Marshall, thank you for introducing me to Intrinsic Coaching® and
for your support in helping me complete this research. Your commitment to helping me
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make this study a reality is extraordinary. This coaching methodology you have created is
a true gift to my life, and I am honored to be able to utilize it in my research and share
what I have learned with others.
To my family and friends, thank you for believing in me and for your love and
understanding during this doctoral journey – especially when I missed several gatherings
in order to focus on this degree. Thank you for being in my life; I look forward to being
able to spend more time with you and moving on to more of life’s adventures together.
Finally, to my husband, Dave, words cannot express how grateful I am for your
unending love and support. Your patience and encouragement throughout this entire
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journey are what made it possible for me to keep going and to make this dream a reality.
From putting up with my sleep-deprived crankiness, listening to me ramble on about my
courses and research, and understanding when I couldn’t play, you have shown me what
a true partner you are; I could not have done this without you!
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements iv
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
Introduction to the Problem 1
Background of the Study 2
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Statement of the Problem 4
Purpose of the Study 5
Rationale
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Research Questions 7
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Significance of the Study 9
Theoretical Framework 10
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Conceptual Framework 16
Definition of Terms 16
Assumptions and Limitations 19
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 21
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 23
Part 1: The Worksite Health Promotion Profession 23
Part 2: The Coaching Profession 32
Part 3: Job-Related Attitudes 45
Part 4: Intentional Change and Intrinsic Motivation 55
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Conclusion 65
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 67
Research Design 69
Sample 71
Instrumentation / Measures 73
Data Collection 79
Intervention 81
Anticipated Findings 82
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Data Analysis 84
Validity and Reliability 86
Ethical Considerations
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 90
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Hartman Value Profile 95
Intrinsic Capacity 106
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Organizational Commitment 107
Job Satisfaction 117
Work-Life Balance 123
Engagement and Productivity 128
Change in Intrinsic Capacity 135
Experience/Impact of Participating in the ICDS 143
Validity of the Life Balance Wheel 162
Summary of Findings 173
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 175
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Summary and Discussion of Results 176
Conclusions/Implications of Results 194
Recommendations 200
REFERENCES 203
APPENDIX A: LIFE BALANCE WHEEL 215
APPENDIX B: HARTMAN VALUE PROFILE 216
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List of Tables
Table 1: Dimensions and Examples of Value-Vision 64
Table 2: Anticipated Relationship of Variables with Intrinsic Capacity 83
Table 3: Pre-Post Comparison of Mean Worldview HVP Measurements 101
Table 4: Pre-Post Comparison of Mean Self-view HVP Measurements 105
Table 5: Pre-Post Comparison of Response to Question of Whether 120
Participants Would Take Their Current Job Again
Table 6: Significant Pre-Post Mean HVP Score Improvements 137
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Table 7: Descriptions of the Shifts in Thinking and Behavior Resulting 147
from Increased Intrinsic Capacity
Wheel Shape
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Table 8: Life Balance Descriptions Completely Matching the Life Balance 165
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List of Figures
Figure 1: The link of Intrinsic Coaching® to job-related attitudes, intentions, 15
and behaviors.
Figure 2: Conceptual framework for the study. 16
Figure 3: Components of the Ideal Self. 57
Figure 4: Anticipated relationship of intrinsic capacity (measured by the HVP) 84
with job-related outcomes, perceived life balance, and experiences
participating in the ICDS.
Figure 5: Comparison of the relationship between affective and continuance 108
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commitment pre-post ICDS.
Figure 6: Comparison of pre-post ICDS Life Balance Wheel assessments for 167
participant number six. IE
Figure 7: Comparison of pre-post ICDS Life Balance Wheel assessments for 169
participant number eight.
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Figure 8: Comparison of pre-post ICDS Life Balance Wheel assessments for 170
participant number twelve.
Figure 9: The link of Intrinsic Coaching® to job-related attitudes, intentions, 184
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and behaviors.
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem
A growing problem for today’s organizations is rising health care costs and the
declining status of employee well-being. In fact, a 2005 survey of the Business
Roundtable showed that nearly half of the surveyed CEOs stated healthcare as their
biggest cost concern. Health care costs are the second or third largest expense in most
corporations and has become a leadership issue requiring greater business focus and
collaboration (Thompson, 2005). Although many leaders are concerned about health care
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costs, the scientific evidence supporting reduced health care costs as a direct outcome of
participation in worksite health promotion programs is inconclusive (Musich, Adams, &
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Edington, 2000). Most research on the economic impact of implementing a
comprehensive health promotion program only shows cost savings after at least three
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years (Edington, 2007; Edington, Yen & Witting, 1997; Donaldson, Sussman, Dent,
Severson, & Stoddard, 1999). Most organizational leaders want to see results quicker.
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Unfortunately, pressures within organizations for low-cost, high-speed change results in
leaders overlooking the human and behavioral aspects of change that typically leads to
disastrous results (Malone, 2001).
Health promotion programs emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Musich et
al., 2000) as a strategic effort to reduce health risks of employees (Gutknecht &
Gutknecht, 1990) and therefore reduce health care costs. However, recent studies suggest
the traditional scope of health promotion programming is too narrow and should include
interventions to improve perceptions of quality-of-work life (Musich, Hook, Baaner,
Spooner, & Edington, 2006; Donaldson, et al., 1999), changing thoughts by including
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positive psychology practices as a strategy for investing in human capital (Allen,
Carlson, & Ham, 2007), and developing self-leaders as part of individual interventions
(Edington, 2007). In addition, it has been argued that an indirect benefit of health
promotion programs is an increase in the organizational commitment of employees
(Donaldson et al, 1999); however this has not yet been demonstrated in the literature.
Controlling health care costs requires a comprehensive approach that includes
changes in individual health practices and transforming an organization’s culture and
climate (Allen, 1988; Wilson & Wagner, 1997). This cannot be done without focusing on
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individuals, as individual behavior change is a prerequisite for making major
improvements in organizational performance (Robertson, Roberts, & Porras, 1993).
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Therefore, future success of worksite health promotion requires including a larger
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proportion of employees through influencing the organization’s culture and climate
(Wilson & Wagner, 1997) and focusing on effective ways to change how individuals
think about their choices.
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Background of the Study
Creating a healthy workplace often involves transforming an organization’s
culture and climate (Allen, 1988; Wilson & Wagner, 1997). However, this type of change
cannot only happen at the executive level; it needs to happen at the individual level. The
old model of educating people and telling them what to do is not working to foster
behavior change (Edington, 2007). It has been stated that the future of health care is
building health. This requires looking beyond risk factors and looking at the mind and
belief systems of an employee, as it is critical to health and well-being outcomes. New
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health care and psychological models have emerged to focus on promoting individual
strengths instead of weaknesses (Allen-Cover, 2005). Businesses are also looking more at
focusing on individual strengths. The Gallup Organization conducted in-depth interviews
of over 80,000 mangers in more than 400 companies and found common characteristics
of great managers. The study found that one of the keys to great managers is motivating
employees by focusing on and using their strengths rather than their weaknesses
(Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). Therefore, an increased interest in utilizing coaching as
part of worksite wellness programs aimed at populations (as opposed to the traditional
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one-on-one clinical approach) has emerged in recent years.
Coaching is a growing profession gaining popularity. It is an assets-based
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approach to change, which focuses on strengths to enhance human performance rather
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than a deficit approach that takes the approach of “fixing” the shortcomings in people
(Hargroove, 2003). Most of the coaching literature has focused on executive coaching.
However, no scholarly research could be found that examines the impact of coaching at
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the individual employee-level on the organization, transformation efforts, or as part of an
employee health promotion program. Furthermore, although several experts discuss the
benefits of having intrinsically motivated employees (Lahiry, 1994; Neck & Manz, 1992;
Manz, 1986; Amabile, 1997) and the need to focus on how individuals think (Manz &
Neck, 1991; Neck & Manz, 1992), the current coaching literature does not address these
areas. Likewise, the OD literature does not address the best way to increase intrinsic
motivation or the cognitive processes of employees needed to foster effective change.
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Statement of the Problem
The worksite health promotion profession is in great demand given the rising
health care costs, yet a new direction is greatly needed. Larry Chapman, MPH; Dee
Edington, PhD., and Ron Goetzel, PhD. are leading researchers in the area of productivity
and economic return of health promotion programs. Although their work has shown very
promising results (e.g., Chapman, 2003; Chapman, 2005; Edington et al., 1997; Goetzel,
2004) many programs do not produce the published results due to not being properly
resourced and not being considered part of the organization’s operational strategy.
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Likewise, many employers remain reluctant to offer comprehensive worksite health
promotion programs because they are not convinced that they will result in a positive
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economic return (Goetzel & Ozminkowski, 2008). Furthermore, even companies that do
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offer worksite health promotion programs face the challenge of getting employees to
participate and take ownership of their own health behaviors (Anderson, 2003). Coaching
responds to these challenges and is being utilized more frequently. However, its increased
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use in health promotion programs is not yet supported by published studies of efficacy.
While coaching has shown promise among executives, little research exists to
demonstrate its impact at the individual employee level – which is the focus of worksite
health promotion. In addition, although experts are calling for a broader scope for
worksite health promotion professionals (Allen-Cover, 2005; Edington, 2007; Musich et
al., 2006; Donaldson, et al., 1999; Allen et al., 2007) that tends to lend itself towards
coaching, the best practices have not yet been established. Therefore, unless research can
show that coaching is an effective aspect of worksite health promotion programs, and
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organizational leaders can see how coaching may impact the company on a level greater
than individual health and well-being, efforts to advance this profession will continue to
be a challenge.
Purpose of the Study
Since creating healthier organizations requires changing the behavior and the
thought styles and belief systems of individuals, it was worthwhile to further study
specific coaching methodologies to determine if there was a significant and meaningful
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link with desirable changes in individuals and subsequent corporate behavior.
The Intrinsic Coaching® methodology was developed by Christina Marshall of
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Totally Coached, Inc. and focuses on the thought styles and belief systems concerning
good health choices and productivity within in individual’s life and a corporate culture. It
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is grounded in axiological science, a science of thinking founded by philosopher Robert
S. Hartman, Ph.D. and systematically validated by psychologist and biologist Leon
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Pomeroy, Ph.D. (Pomeroy, 2005). Honoring Professor Hartman’s contributions, the
Robert S. Hartman Institute, with resources at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville,
was established in the early 1970s following Professor Hartman’s death in 1973
(Pomeroy, 2005). Axiological science, or value science, views core, habitual and
evaluative values as building blocks of an individual’s personality, thinking, and
understanding of others. Members of The Hartman Institute conduct ongoing research in
the field of basic and applied axiological science, which is concerned with individual
values in relation to decision-making and health outcomes, The Hartman Value Profile
(HVP), derived from Hartman’s formal theory of values (i.e., formal axiology), is the
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paper and pencil assessment of habitual evaluative habits that identifies and measures
the core dimensions of valuation and thinking. This institute, with members the world
over, and resources at the University of Tennessee, is focused on the continued
development and the ethical and professional applications of the HVP.
The purpose of this research was to determine whether intrinsic capacity, defined
as the general capacity to value the individuality and uniqueness of oneself and others,
and measured by the HVP, is associated with other measures of job performance and
perceived life balance and how Intrinsic Coaching® relates to this measurable dimension
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of behavior.
IERationale
This research contributes greatly to finding a new direction for creating healthier
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organizations by fostering individual change. The OD literature widely discusses the
importance of having intrinsically motivated (Lahiry, 1994; Neck & Manz, 1992; Manz,
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1986; Amabile, 1997), satisfied (Ostroff, 1992; Judge & Ilies, 2004; Hom & Kinicki,
2001), and committed employees (Barrett, 2003; Allen & Meyer, 1990; Lahiry, 1994;
Randolph, 2000) yet does not address the best way to foster intrinsic motivation.
Literature in OD (e.g., Kotter, 1995; Cooperrider & Whitney, 1999; Cooperrider,
Sorensen, Whitney, & Yaeger, 2000; Cooperrider & Whitney, 2005; Malone, 2001;
Boyatzis, 2006), psychology (e.g., Rogers, 1961; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000),
and health promotion (e.g., Edington, 2001; Chapman, 2005; Anderson, 2003; Wilson &
Wagner, 1997) addresses the importance of individual change as part of organizational
change and how individual thoughts impact change and effectiveness (e.g., Bushe &
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Kassam, 2005; Chapman, 2007; Boyington Wall, 2003; Manz & Neck, 1991); however,
no agreement on best practices for this level of individual change has been established.
The limited coaching literature attempts to show the impact of coaching with individual
effectiveness but currently is lacking and does not address individual values driving
thoughts, beliefs, emotions and motivations or their impact on health behaviors.
This study attempted to address the gaps in the literature by measuring intrinsic
capacity with a proven and validated instrument, studying a coaching methodology
specifically designed to identify and increase intrinsic capacity, and examining what
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relationships exist between personal intrinsic capacity, Intrinsic Coaching®, and job-
related attitudes important to organizational leaders. In addition, this study attempted to
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determine if the Life Balance Wheel, an assessment tool commonly used in professional
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coaching practice, is effective in measuring life balance and satisfaction in multiple areas
of life. The knowledge gained from this study helps to bridge the gap between the
different bodies of literature and guide future research.
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Research Questions
The research questions addressed in this study included:
1. How is intrinsic capacity associated with job-related outcomes (i.e. job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and perceived life balance)?
2. How does increasing intrinsic capacity relate to measures of job-related
outcomes?
3. How do people participating in Intrinsic Coach® training describe their
experiences, including their perceived life balance and job-related attitudes?
4. Is the Life Balance Wheel assessment an effective tool for determining
individual perceived life balance?
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The investigative questions that accompanied the research questions included:
1. How is intrinsic capacity associated with job-related outcomes (i.e. job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and work/life conflict)?
a. What is the level of intrinsic capacity among participants?
b. What is the level of organizational commitment of participants?
c. What attitudes do individuals have toward the organization where they
work?
d. What level of conflict exists between work and family?
e. Are any of the measures of job-related outcomes associated with the level
of intrinsic capacity?
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2. How does increasing intrinsic capacity relate to measures of job-related
outcomes?
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a. Does participating in Intrinsic Coach® training increase intrinsic capacity?
b. Do job-related outcomes improve as a result of participating in Intrinsic
Coach® training?
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c. Are any increases in job-related outcomes associated with an increased
level of intrinsic capacity?
3. How do people participating in Intrinsic Coach® training describe their
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experiences, including their perceived life balance and job-related attitudes?
a. What are the most significant things people learn from completing
Intrinsic Coach® training?
b. How do people describe the differences in their thinking as a result of
completing Intrinsic Coach® training?
c. What changes do people experience in their lives as a result of completing
Intrinsic Coach® training?
d. Do any attitudes or beliefs change as a result of completing Intrinsic
Coach® training?
e. Does perceived life balance differ before and after completing Intrinsic
Coach® training?
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4. Is the Life Balance Wheel assessment an effective tool for determining
individual perceived life balance?
a. How closely does the shape of the completed Life Balance Wheel match
the description of an individual’s perceived life balance?
b. Are changes in perceived life balance accurately depicted in repeat
assessments using the Life Balance Wheel?
Significance of the Study
This study is significant in addressing the gaps in the literature regarding the role
of intrinsic capacity and intrinsic motivation in organizational outcomes. The knowledge
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gained from this research will hopefully help guide worksite health promotion
professionals in a new direction to help companies better manage their human capital and
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subsequent change efforts. Many researchers (e.g., Manz, 1986; Bushe & Kassam, 2005;
Edington, 2007) discuss the importance of intrinsic motivation in relation to sustainable
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change and outcomes, yet the literature is lacking in conclusions for the best way to foster
intrinsic motivation. In addition, the word intrinsic is widely used yet is not clearly
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defined as a specific construct and is typically not used as a measurable and precisely
defined concept. Therefore, the literature is also lacking in the best way to foster intrinsic
values, beliefs, emotions and motivations. Furthermore, although the research on
professional coaching is increasing, limited research exists examining the role of
coaching on the individual level with organizational outcomes, and even less where
developing intrinsic capacities is concerned.
The profession of worksite health promotion is in need of a new approach to help
companies manage the health of their employees and ultimately manage the costs
associated with poor health. Many experts discuss the importance of utilizing coaching,
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but standards of practice do not yet exist for how to best utilize coaching within
worksite health promotion programs and how to measure its impact. In addition, many
companies experiencing high turnover are hesitant to invest in health promotion
programs. If the presumed relationships are determined to exist among intrinsic capacity,
coaching and job-related outcomes important to organizational leaders, then worksite
health promotion professionals will be able to provide better outcomes for the companies
they serve. Future research in this area will hopefully build upon this exploratory study to
begin to establish best practices.
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This study greatly contributes to the growing literature on professional coaching.
To date, limited research exists examining specifically why coaching works. It was hoped
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that if the Intrinsic Coaching® methodology, examined in this study, resulted in
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measurable changes in intrinsic capacity, and if intrinsic capacity was related to other
job-related outcomes, the new knowledge created might help explain the role of coaching
in individual and organizational change. The coaching profession needs quality research
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using validated measures to help further distinguish itself from other methodologies (e.g.,
mentoring, training, or counseling); this study helped address this need and will hopefully
guide future coaching research.
Theoretical Framework
The methods and theoretical framework were based on work from several
disciplines. Specifically, the foundation for this research study was based on the work of
several approaches to change stemming from individual strengths and the role of intrinsic
motivation.
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Strengths-Based Psychology
Focusing on individual strengths as a mechanism for change is becoming
increasingly common with the positive psychologies of Nathaniel Branden (1969), Albert
Ellis (1957), and the more recent writings of Seligman (2002). Traditional psychology
has been criticized for primarily addressing mental illness rather than mental “wellness”
(Seligman, 1990). More recent positive psychology, on the other hand, focuses on
happiness and well-being and involves three areas: (a) the pleasant life refers to a life
where people are successfully pursuing the positive emotions about the present, past, and
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future; (b) the good life refers to people using their given strengths to obtain abundant
gratification in the main realms of their life; and (c) the meaningful life involves people
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using their given strengths and virtues to serve something much larger than themselves
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(Seligman, 2002).
Positive psychology reveals the intrinsic in one’s life and is not unlike the
underlying premise of Carl Rogers’s (1951) theory, which posits that people are basically
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good or healthy, possessing within themselves resources needed to bring about states of
goodness and health. His theory is built on the actualizing tendency, which refers to the
innate motivation within every life-form to develop to its fullest potential. This concept
not only applies to individuals but also entire ecosystems. Rogers (1951) believes that
organisms ultimately know what is best for them and have a tendency to move toward
ongoing growth and enhancement. The natural tendency is to have positive regard and
positive self-regard that is the real self. However, society tends to not be in alignment
with this actualizing tendency, thus leading to people developing conditional self-regard
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