Introduction

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output. The
followingfigureshows the simpleblock diagram ofacontrol system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by varying input,
thecontrol system got this name. We will vary this input with some mechanism. In the next section on open
loopand closed loop control systems, we will study in detail about the blocks inside the control system and how
tovarythis input in order to get thedesired response.
Examples −Trafficlightscontrolsystem,washingmachine
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal is applied to
thiscontrol system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some duration of time. During
thistime, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times
ofthe lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights
controlsystemoperates on timebasis.
OpenLoop andClosed LoopControl Systems
ControlSystemscanbeclassifiedasopenloopcontrolsystemsandclosedloopcontrolsystemsbasedonthefeedback
path.
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is independent of
thedesiredoutput.
Thefollowing figureshows theblock diagramof theopen loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal. This signal
isgiven as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant produces an output, which
iscontrolled. The traffic lights control system which we discussed earlier is an example of an open loop
controlsystem.
In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is dependent on the
desiredoutput.
 TransferFunction

Transferfunctionofalineartime-invariantsystemisdefinedastheratiooftheLaplacetransform of
output variable to the Laplace transform of input variable assuming all the initialconditions to be
zero. The figure 1a shows the system in time domain whereas figure 1b
showsthesysteminLaplacedomain.

Figure1a. systemintimedomain Fig1b.systeminLaplacedomain.

Figure1.Transfer Functionofasystem
IfG(s)bethetransferfunctionofthesystem, wecanwritemathematicallyas

G(s) = Laplacetransformof (allinitialconditionsarezero)

outputLaplacetransformofi
nput

= 𝐶(𝑠) (allinitialconditionsarezero) ............................................................................... (1)

𝑅(𝑠)
 BlockDiagrams

Block diagram is the pictorial representation ofsystem.It consists of a single block or

acombinationofblocks.Eachblockis afunctionalblock.

BasicElementsofBlock Diagram
Thebasicelementsofablockdiagramareablock,thesummingpointandthetake-offpoint.Let us
consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the
followingfiguretoidentifytheseelements.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It
isalsohavingonesummingpointandonetake-offpoint.Arrowsindicatethedirectionofthe
 flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by
one.Block
Thetransferfunctionofacomponentisrepresentedbyablock.Blockhassingleinputand
singleoutput.
ThefollowingfigureshowsablockhavinginputX(s),outputY(s)andthetransferfunctionG(s).

TransferFunction,G(s)=Y(s)/X(s)
⇒Y(s)=G(s)X(s)

Outputoftheblockisobtainedby multiplyingtransferfunctionoftheblockwithinput.Summing Point

Thesummingpointisrepresentedwithacirclehavingcross(X)insideit.Ithastwoormore
inputsandsingleoutput.Itproducesthealgebraicsumoftheinputs.Italsoperformsthe
summationorsubtractionorcombinationofsummationandsubtractionoftheinputsbasedonthepolarit
yoftheinputs.Letus seethesethreeoperationsonebyone.
The following figure shows the summing pointwith two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).Here,
theinputs A andB have a positive sign. So, the summing pointproduces the output, Yassum
ofAandB.
i.e.=A+B.

The following figure shows the summing pointwith two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).Here,
the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B ishaving
negative sign. So, the summing point produces the outputY as the difference of A andB.
Y=A+(-B)=A-B.
The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output
(Y).Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So,
thesummingpointproduces theoutputYas
Y=A+B +(−C)=A+B −C.

Take-offPoint
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more
thanone branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one
ormoreblocks,summingpoints.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two
moreblocks.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the
inputstothesummingpoint.
BlockDiagramRepresentationofElectricalSystems
In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical
systemscontainmainlythreebasic elements—resistor,inductorandcapacitor.
Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in thefollowingfigure. Where, V i(t) and Vo(t)
aretheinputandoutputvoltages.Leti(t)bethecurrentpassingthroughthecircuit.Thiscircuitisintimedo
main.

By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The circuit
isasshowninthefollowingfigure.

Fromtheabovecircuit,wecanwrite
I(s)=[Vi(s)−Vo(s)]/R+sL
⇒I(s)={1/R+sL}{Vi(s)−Vo(s)} (Equation1)
Vo(s)=(1/sC)I(s) (Equation2)
Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then
combinethose block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series of
RLC Circuit(s-domain).
Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, 1/R+sL.The
inputandoutputofthis blockare {Vi(s)−Vo(s)} and I(s). Werequireasummingpoint to
1isshowninthefollowingfigure.

Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, 1/sC. The input
andoutput of this block are I(s) and Vo(s). The block diagram of Equation 2 is shown in
thefollowingfigure.

The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the
followingfigure.

Similarly,youcandrawthe blockdiagramofanyelectricalcircuitorsystem
justbyfollowingthissimpleprocedure.
 Convertthetime domainelectricalcircuitintoans-
domainelectricalcircuitbyapplyingLaplacetransform.
  Writedowntheequationsforthecurrentpassingthroughallseriesbranchelementsandvoltagea
crossall shuntbranches.
 Drawtheblockdiagramsforalltheaboveequationsindividually.
 Combinealltheseblockdiagramsproperlyinordertogettheoverallblockdiagramoftheelectric
alcircuit(s-domain).

Blockdiagramreductionrules:
Therearethreebasictypesofconnections
betweentwoblocks.Rule1:Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks
havingtransferfunctionsG1(s)andG2(s)are connectedinseries.

Forthiscombination,wewillgettheoutputY(s)as
Y(s)=G2(s)Z(s)

Where,Z(s)=G1(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s)=G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)]=G1(s)G2(s)X(s)

⇒Y(s)={G1(s)G2(s)} X(s)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the outputequation,

Y(s)=G(s)X(s).Where,G(s)=G1(s)G2(s).
That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block.
Thetransfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two
blocks.Theequivalentblockdiagramisshownbelow.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transferfunctionofthissingleblockisthe productofthetransferfunctionsofallthose‘n’ blocks.
Rule2:ParallelConnection
The blocks which are connected inparallel will have the same input. In the following figure,two
blocks having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in parallel. The outputs
ofthesetwoblocksareconnectedto thesummingpoint.
 Forthiscombination,wewillgettheoutputY(s)as
Y(s) =Y1(s)+Y2(s)

Where, Y1(s)=G1(s)X(s))and Y2(s) =G2(s)X(s)

⇒Y(s)=G1(s)X(s)+G2(s)X(s)={G1(s)+G2(s)} X(s)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output

equation,Y(s) =G(s)X(s)
Where,G(s) =G1(s)+G2(s)
That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block.
Thetransferfunctionofthissingleblockisthesumofthetransferfunctionsofthosetwoblocks.Theequiv
alentblockdiagramis shown below.

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transferfunction of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those
‘n’blocks.

Rule3:FeedbackConnection
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback
andnegative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here,
twoblockshaving transferfunctionsG(s)and H(s)formaclosedloop.
Theoutputofthesumming pointis-
E(s)=X(s) −H(s)Y(s)

Theoutput Y(s)is-
Y(s)=E(s)G(s)

SubstituteE(s)valueintheaboveequation.
Y(s)={X(s)−H(s)Y(s)}G(s)}

Y(s){1+G(s)H(s)}=X(s)G(s)

⇒Y(s)/X(s)=G(s)/[1+ G(s)H(s)]

Therefore,thenegativefeedbackclosedlooptransfer functionisG(s)/[1+G(s)H(s)]
This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
singleblock. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of
thenegativefeedback.The equivalentblockdiagramis shownbelow.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block.The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
positivefeedback,i.e.,G(s)/[1−G(s) H(s)]
Rule4:BlockDiagramAlgebraforSummingPoints
Therearetwopossibilitiesofshiftingsumming pointswithrespect toblocks−

 Shiftingsummingpoint aftertheblock
 Shiftingsummingpoint beforetheblock
Letusnowseewhatkindofarrangementsneedtobedone intheabovetwocasesonebyone.
Rule4a:ShiftingSummingPointaftertheBlock
Considertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.Here,thesummingpointispresentbeforetheb
lock.

Summing point has two inputs R(s) and X(s). The output of it is
{R(s)+X(s)}So,theinputtothe block G(s)is{R(s)+X(s)}andtheoutput ofitis –
Y(s)=G(s){R(s)+X(s)}

⇒Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s)(Equation 1)

Now,shiftthesummingpointaftertheblock.Thisblockdiagramisshowninthefollowingfigure.

Output of the block G(s) is

G(s)R(s)Theoutputofthesummingpo
intis
Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s) (Equation2)
CompareEquation1andEquation2.
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the
secondterm. In order to get the second term also same,we require one more block G(s). Itis
havingthe input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of
X(s).Thisblockdiagramisshown inthefollowingfigure.
Rule4b:ShiftingSumming PointBeforetheBlock
Considertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.Here,thesummingpointispresentaftertheblo
ck.

Outputofthisblock diagramis-
Y(s) =G(s)R(s)+X(s) (Equation3)
Now,shiftthesummingpointbeforetheblock.Thisblockdiagramisshowninthefollowingfigure.

Outputofthisblock diagramis-
Y(S)=G(s) R(s)+G(s)X(s) (Equation
4)CompareEquation3 andEquation4,
The first term ‘G(s) R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the second
term.In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 1/G(s). It is having
theinput X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of X(s).
Thisblockdiagramis shown inthefollowingfigure.

Rule5:BlockDiagramAlgebraforTake-offPoints
Therearetwopossibilitiesofshiftingthetake-offpointswithrespecttoblocks−

 Shiftingtake-offpointafter theblock
 Shiftingtake-offpointbeforetheblock
Letusnowseewhatkindofarrangementsaretobedoneintheabovetwocases,onebyone.Rule5a:Shiftin
gTake-offPointaftertheBlock
Considertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.Inthiscase,thetake-offpointis
presentbeforetheblock.

Here,X(s)=R(s) andY(s) =G(s)R(s)

Whenyoushiftthetake-
offpointaftertheblock,theoutputY(s)willbesame.But,thereisdifferenceinX(s)value.So,inordertoget
thesameX(s)value,werequireonemore
block 1/G(s). It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown
inthefollowingfigure.

Rule5b:ShiftingTake-offPointBeforetheBlock
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is
presentaftertheblock.

Here, X(s)=Y(s) =G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there
isdifference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one more block G(s).
Itis having the input R(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in the
followingfigure.
Rule6:AssociativeLaw ForSummingPoint

Thiscanbe betterexplainedbytaking belowdiagram

Y=R(s)– B1
C(s)=y–B2 =R(s)–B1 –B2
Thislawis applicableonlytosummingpointswhichareconnecteddirectlytoeachother.Note: If there
is a block present between two summing points(and hence they are not
connecteddirectly)thenthis rulecan’tbeapplied.

Procedureforfinding TFbyusingBlockDiagramReductionRules
Followtheserulesforsimplifying(reducing)theblockdiagram,whichishavingmany
blocks,summingpoints andtake-offpoints.
 Rule1−Checkfortheblocksconnected inseriesandsimplify.
 Rule2 −Checkfortheblocksconnected inparalleland simplify.
 Rule3−Checkfortheblocksconnectedinfeedbackloopandsimplify.
 Rule4−Ifthereisdifficultywith take-
offpointwhilesimplifying,shiftittowardsrightorleftofthegivenblockwhichoneis suitable.
 Rule5
−Ifthereisdifficultywithsummingpointwhilesimplifying,shiftittowardsrightorleftofthegiv
enblockwhichoneis suitable.
 Rule6−Repeattheabovestepstillyougetthesimplifiedform,i.e.,singleblock.

Example
Considertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.Letussimplify(reduce)thisblockdiagramusi
ngtheblockdiagramreductionrules.
Step1 −UseRule1forblocks G1andG2.UseRule2forblocksG3 and
G4.Themodifiedblockdiagramis shown inthefollowingfigure.

Step2−UseRule3forblocksG1G2and H1.UseRule4forshiftingtake-
offpointaftertheblockG5.Themodifiedblockdiagramisshowninthefollowingfigure.
Step3−UseRule1forblocks(G3+G4) and
G5.Themodifiedblockdiagramisshowninthefollowingfigure.

Step4−UseRule3forblocks
(G3+G4)G5andH3.Themodifiedblockdiagramisshowninthefollowingfigure.

Step5−UseRule1forblocksconnectedinseries.Themodifiedblockdiagramisshowninthefollowingfi
gure.

Step6−UseRule3forblocksconnectedinfeedbackloop.Themodifiedblockdiagramisshowninthefoll
owingfigure.Thisis the simplified blockdiagram.
Therefore,thetransferfunctionofthesystemis
Y(s)/R(s)=G1G2G52(G3+G4)/(1+G1G2H1){1+(G3+G4)G5H3}G5−G1G2G5(G3+G4)H2

Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the
blockdiagramhavingmultipleinputs.
 Step1−Findthetransferfunctionofblockdiagrambyconsideringoneinputatatimeandmaketh
e remaininginputsaszero.
 Step2−Repeatstep1forremaininginputs.
 Step3−Gettheoveralltransfer functionbyaddingallthosetransferfunctions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because,
wehave to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome
thisdrawback,usesignalflowgraphs (representation).

SignalFlowGraphs
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter, let
usdiscuss the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal
flowgraphs.

Characteristics of SFG: SFG is a graphical representation of the relationship between

thevariablesofasetoflinearalgebraicequations.Itdoesn'trequireanyreductiontechniqueorprocess.

o It representsanetworkinwhichnodesareusedfortherepresentationofsystemvariablewhichis
connectedbydirectbranches.
o SFG
isadiagramwhichrepresentsasetofequations.Itconsistsofnodesandbranchessuchthateach
branchofSFGhavinganarrowwhichrepresents theflowofthesignal.
o Itisonlyapplicabletothelinearsystem.

TerminologyusedinSFG
Nodesandbranchesarethebasicelementsofsignalflowgraph.

1. Node
Nodeisapointwhich representseitheravariableor asignal.Therearethreetypesof nodes—
inputnode,outputnodeandmixednode.
 InputNodeorsource−Itisanode,whichhasonlyoutgoingbranches.
 OutputNodeorsink−Itisanode, whichhasonlyincomingbranches.
 MixedNode−Itisanode, whichhasbothincomingandoutgoing branches.
Example
Letusconsiderthefollowing signalflowgraphtoidentifythesenodes.

 Thenodespresentinthissignal flowgraphare y1,y2, y3andy4.

 y1andy4aretheinputnodeandoutputnoderespectively.
 y2and y3aremixed nodes.
2. Branch
Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For
example,therearefourbranchesintheabovesignalflowgraph.Thesebrancheshavegainsofa,b,cand-d.
3. ForwardPath
Itisapathfromaninputnodetoanoutputnodeinthedirectionofbrancharrow.

4. Loop:Itisapaththatstartsandendsatthesamenode.

5. Non-touchingloop: Loopissaidtobenon-touchingiftheydonothaveanycommon node.

6. Forwardpathgain:Aproductofall
branchesgainalongtheforwardpathiscalledForwardpathgain.
7. LoopGain:Loop gain istheproduct ofbranchgainwhichtravels inthe loop.

ConstructionofSignalFlowGraph
Letusconstructasignalflowgraph byconsideringthefollowingalgebraicequations−
y2= a12 y1 +a42

y4y3

=a23y2+a53y5y4=a3

4y3

y5=a45y4+a35y3y6

= a56y5

Therewillbesixnodes(y1,y2,y3,y4,y5andy6)andeightbranchesinthissignalflowgraph.Thegains
ofthebranchesarea12,a23,a34,a45,a56,a42,a53and a35.
Togettheoverallsignalflowgraph,drawthesignalflowgraphforeachequation,thencombineallthesesi
gnalflowgraphsand thenfollowthestepsgivenbelow −
Step1−Signalflowgraphfory2=a12y1+a42y4isshowninthefollowingfigure.

Step2−Signalflowgraphfor y3=a23y2+a53y5isshowninthefollowingfigure.
Step3−Signalflowgraphfory4=a34y3isshowninthefollowingfigure.

Step4−Signalflowgraphfory5=a45y4+a35y3isshowninthefollowingfigure.

Step5−Signalflowgraphfory6=a56y5isshowninthefollowingfigure.

Step6−Signalflowgraphofoverallsystemisshowninthefollowingfigure.
ConversionofBlockDiagramsintoSignalFlowGraphs
Followthesestepsforconvertingablockdiagramintoitsequivalent signalflowgraph.
 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagramasnodesinsignalflowgraph.
 Representtheblocksofblockdiagramasbranchesinsignalflowgraph.
 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of
thebranchesinsignalflowgraph.
 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two
nodes(but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one.
Forexample, between summing points, between summing point and takeoff point,
betweeninputandsummingpoint,betweentake-offpointandoutput.

Example
Letusconvertthefollowingblockdiagramintoitsequivalent signalflowgraph.
Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram as input node R(s)
andoutputnodeC(s)ofsignalflowgraph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the block diagram. There
arenine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing points,
fournodesforfourtake-offpoints and onenodeforthevariablebetweenblocksG1 and G2.
Thefollowing figureshowstheequivalentsignalflowgraph.

With the help of Mason’s gain formula (discussed in the next chapter), you can calculate
thetransfer function of this signal flow graph. This is the advantage of signal flow graphs. Here,
wenoneed tosimplify(reduce)thesignalflowgraphsfor calculating thetransfer function.
Note:1.Ifsummingpointispresentbeforeatakeoffpointitmaybeassumeassamenode.
2.If thereisapresentofsummingpointinseries(noblockwithinit),itmaybetakeiassamenode.
Ex:DeterminetransferfunctionbyusingMason’sgainformula.
Solution:

Mason'sGainFormula
Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a
signalflow graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph is
nothingbutthetransferfunctionofthesystem.It canbecalculated byusingMason’sgainformula.
Mason’sgainformulais
1
T=C(s)/R(s)= ( )∑𝑁 PiΔi
Δ 𝑖=1

Where,
 C(s)istheoutput node
 R(s)istheinputnode
  TisthetransferfunctionorgainbetweenR(s)R(s)andC(s)C(s)
 Piisthe ith forwardpathgain

Δ=1−(sumofall individual loopgains)+ (sum ofgain productsofall

possibletwonontouchingloops)−(sumofgainproductsofallpossiblethree nontouchingloops)+...
ΔiisobtainedfromΔbyremoving the loopswhicharetouchingtheithforwardpath.
Considerthefollowingsignalflow graphin ordertounderstand thebasicterminologyinvolvedhere.

Path
Itisatraversalofbranchesfromonenodetoanyothernodeinthedirectionofbrancharrows.Itshouldnottr
averseanynodemorethanonce.
Examplesy2→y3→y4→y5andy5→y3→y2Fo
rwardPath
Thepaththat existsfromtheinputnode tothe outputnodeis knownasforwardpath.
Examples−y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6andy1→y2→y3→y5→y6.Fo

rwardPathGain
Itisobtainedbycalculating theproductofallbranchgainsoftheforwardpath.
Examples–
abcdeistheforwardpathgainofy1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6andabgeistheforwardpathgainofy1→y2
→y3→y5→y6.
Loop
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as loop. Hence, it is
aclosedpath.
Examples y2→y3→y2 and
y3→y5→y3.LoopGain
Itisobtainedbycalculatingtheproductofallbranchgainsofaloop.
Examples−bjistheloop gainofy2→y3→y2 andghistheloopgainof y3→y5→y3.

Non-touchingLoops
These are the loops, which should not have any common
node.Examples−Theloopsy2→y3→y2andy4→y5→y4arenon-
touching.
CalculationofTransferFunctionusingMason’sGainFormula
Letusconsiderthesamesignalflowgraphforfindingtransferfunction.

Numberofforward paths,N=2.
 Firstforwardpathis -y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6.
 Firstforwardpathgain,p1=abcde.
 Secondforwardpathis -y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
 Second forward path gain,
p2=abge.Numberofindividualloops,
L=5.
Loops are - y2→y3→y2, y3→y5→y3, y3→y4→y5→y3 , y4→y5→y4 and
y5→y5.Loopgainsare -l1=bj,l2=gh,l3=cdh,l4=diandl5=f
Numberoftwonon-touchingloops=2.
 Firstnon-touching loopspairis-y2→y3→y2, y4→y5→y4.
 Gainproductoffirstnon-touchingloopspair,l1l4=bjdi
 Secondnon-touchingloopspairis-y2→y3→y2,y5→y5
 Gainproduct ofsecondnon-touchingloopspairis-l1l5=bjf
Highernumberof(morethantwo)non-touchingloopsarenotpresentinthissignalflowgraph.Weknow,
Δ=1−(sumofallindividualloopgains)
+(sumofgainproductsofallpossibletwonontouchingloops)
−(sumofgainproductsofallpossiblethree nontouchingloops)+...

Substitutethevaluesintheaboveequation,Δ=1−(
bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+(bjdi+bjf)−(0)
⇒Δ=1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf

Thereisnoloopwhichisnon-
touchingtothefirstforwardpath.So,Δ1=1
Similarly,Δ2=1.Since,noloopwhichisnon-touchingtothesecondforwardpath.Substitute,N=2
inMason’sgain formula
T=C(s)R(s)=[P1Δ1+P2Δ2]/Δ

Substituteallthenecessaryvaluesintheaboveequation.
T=C(s)R(s)=(abcde)1+(abge)1/[1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf]

⇒T=C(s)R(s)=(abcde)+(abge)/[1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf]

Therefore,thetransferfunctionis-
T=C(s)R(s)=(abcde)+(abge)/[1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf]
 Time ResponseAnalysis
Thevariationofoutputwithrespecttotimeisknownastimeresponse.Thetimeresponseconsists
oftwoparts.

 Transientresponse
 Steadystateresponse
Here, both the transient and the steady
statesare indicated in the figure 1. The
responsescorresponding to these states are
known astransientandsteadystateresponses.
Mathematically,wecanwritethetimeresponsec(t
)as
C(t)=Ctr(t)+Css(t) (1) Figure1 Time response ofasystemWhere,

 ctr(t)isthetransientresponse
 css(t)isthesteadystateresponseTr

ansientResponse
Thetransientresponseisthepartofthetieresponsewhichgoestozeroafterlargeintervalof
time ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is infinity and practically, it is five times
constant.Mathematically,wecanwriteitas
lim𝐶𝑡𝑟(𝑡)=0
𝑡→∞
SteadystateResponse
The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value
forlarge values of ‘t’ is known as steady stateresponse. This means, the transientresponse will
bezeroevenduringthesteadystate.
Example
Letusfindthetransientandsteady state termsof thetimeresponseofthecontrolsystem
c(t)=10+5e−t.Here, the second term 5e−t will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this isthe
transient term. Andthe first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is
thesteadystateterm.
StandardTestSignals
The standard testsignalsareimpulse,step,rampandparabolic.Thesesignalsare
usedtoknowtheperformanceofthecontrolsystemsusingtimeresponseofthe output.
Unit ImpulseSignal
Asignalwhichhaszerovalueeverywhereexceptatt=0,whereitsmagnitudeisinfinite.Itisalsoknownas
δ-function.Mathematically:
δ(t)=0;t≠0
=∞;t=0 (2)
 +∊
and ∫−∊ δ(t)dt = 1 where ∊ tends to
zeroThefigure(2a)showsunitimpulsesignal.

Figure(2a) Figure(2b)

Practically a perfect impulse signal cannot be achieved. It is generally approximated be a

pulseofunitareaas shown infigure(2b).

Anunitimpulsesignal isthederivativeofastepsignal i.e.,

δ(t)=𝑑𝑢(𝑡) (3)
𝑑𝑡

Laplacetransformofaunitimpulseis

L[δ(t)]=L[𝑑𝑢(𝑡)]=sR(s) = 1 (AsforstepinputR(s)=1/s) (4)

𝑑𝑡

Unit StepSignal
Aunitstepsignal isdefinedas r(t) =Au(t) (5)
Whereu(t)=1;t≥0

0;t<0

u(t)iscalledasunitstepsignal.

BytakingLaplace transformofr(t),wehave

R(s)=A/s (6)

Followingfigure3showsunitstepsignal.
So,theunitstepsignalexistsforallpositivevaluesof‘t’
includingzero Figure3:unitstepsignal
UnitRamp Signal
Aunit rampsignal,r(t)isdefinedas
r(t)= At;t≥0

=0; t<0 (7)

Therampsignalstartsfromzeroandincreaseslinearlywithtime.Arampsignalistheintegralofastepsigna
l.i.e

Ramp Signal = ∫ step

signalThefigure4showsunitrampsignal

Figure4 : rampsignal

UnitParabolicSignal
Aunitparabolicsignal, r(t)isdefinedas,
r(t)=At2/2;t≥0

0;t<0 (8)

By taking the Laplace transform of equation

8,R(s)=A/s3 (9)

Parabolic signal is integral of a ramp signal.

i.eParabolicsignal=∫rampsignal

Thefigure5showstheunitparabolicsignal. Figure5:unitparabolicsignal

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its
valueincreases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit
parabolicsignalis zerofor allthenegativevaluesof‘t’.

TimeResponseoftheFirst OrderSystem

Let us discuss the time response of the first order system. Consider the following block
diagramof the closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer function, 1/sT is
connected with aunitynegativefeedback.
 Figure(6):Blockdiagramofafirst ordersystem

Weknowthatthetransferfunctionoftheclosedloopcontrolsystemhasunitynegativefeedbackas,
C(s)
=
G(s)R(s)
1+G(s)H(s)

Substitute,G(s)=1intheaboveequation.
𝑇𝑠

1
C(s) 𝑇𝑠
1
= 1 = (10)
R(s) 1+ 1+Ts
𝑇𝑠

Thepowerofsisoneinthedenominatorterm.Hence,theabovetransferfunctionisofthefirstorder
andthesystemis saidtobethefirstordersystem.

Wecanre-writetheaboveequationas
1
C(s)= R(s) (11)
1+Ts

Where,
 C(s) is the Laplacetransformoftheoutput signalc(t),
 R(s)istheLaplace transformoftheinputsignalr(t),and
 Tisthetimeconstant.

ImpulseResponseofFirstOrderSystemFor
unitimpulsesignalR(s)=1
1
Considertheequation (11),C(s) = R(s)
1+Ts

Substitute,R(s)=1 intheaboveequation.
1
C(s)= (12)
1+Ts

RearrangetheaboveequationinoneofthestandardformsofLaplacetransforms.
1
𝑇
C(s) = s+ 1 (13)
𝑇
ApplyinverseLaplacetransformonbothsides.
𝑡
1 −
c(t)= 𝑒 𝑇 (14)
𝑇

Theunitimpulseresponseisshowninthefigure7.Theunitimpulseresponse,c(t)isanexponentialdecayi
ngsignalforpositivevaluesof‘t’anditiszerofornegativevaluesof‘t’.

figure7:ImpulseResponseofFirstOrderSystem

StepResponseofFirstOrderSystemFor
unitstepsignalR(s)=1/s
1
Considertheequation (11),C(s) = R(s)
1+Ts

‫؞‬ C(s)=
1 1
=
1
(15)
1+Tss s(1+Ts)

TakingPartialfractionsofEqu.(15)
1 A B
C(s)= = (16)
s(1+Ts) 1+Ts
+
s

1
⇒ = A(1+Ts)+Bs
s(1+Ts) s(1+Ts)

⇒1=A(sT+1)+Bs (17)

BysolvingEqu.(17),weget
A=1;B =−T

Substitute,A=1and B=−Tin Equ.(16),weget

 1 (−T)
C(s)= +
s 1+Ts
1 1
⇒C(s)= - 1
s +s
T

ApplyinverseLaplacetransformonboththe sides.

c(t)=1−𝑒−𝑡/𝑇 (18)

Thefollowing figureshowstheunitstepresponse.

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values of t. It
isgradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady state. So, the
steadystatevaluedepends onthemagnitudeoftheinput.

TimeResponseofSecond OrderSystem

Considerthefollowingblockdiagramofclosedloopcontrolsystem.Here,anopenlooptransferfunction
,ω2s(s+2ζω)isconnectedwith
n / aunitynegativefeedback.
n

Weknowthatthetransferfunctionoftheclosedloopcontrolsystemhavingunitynegativefeedbackas
 C(s)
=
G(s)R(s)
1+G(s)H(s)

2
Substitute,G(s)= 𝑛
intheaboveequation.
𝑠(𝑠+2ζ𝜔𝑛)

𝜔2
𝑛 2
𝑠(𝑠+2ζ𝜔 𝑛 ) 𝜔𝑛
C(s)/R(s)= 𝜔𝑛2 = 2 (19)
1+ 𝑠2+2ζ 𝜔𝑛s+𝜔𝑛
𝑠(𝑠+2ζ𝜔𝑛)

Thepowerof‘s’istwointhedenominatorterm.Hence,theabovetransferfunctionisofthesecondorder
and the system is said to be the second ordersystem.
Thecharacteristicequationis-
s2+2ζωns+ωn2=0 (20)

The roots of characteristic equation are -

S1,S2=[−2ωnζ±√(2ζωn)2−4ωn2]/2

 Thetwo roots areimaginarywhen ζ=0.

 Thetworoots arerealandequalwhen ζ=1.
 Thetwo rootsarerealbutnotequalwhenζ>1.
 The two roots are complex conjugate when 0 <ζ
<1.WecanwriteC(s)equationas,
C(s)= 𝜔2𝑛
2 R(s) (21)
𝑠 +2ζ𝜔𝑛s+𝜔𝑛
2

StepResponseofSecondOrder System
Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order
system.Laplacetransformoftheunitstepsignalis,
R(s)=1/s

Weknowthetransferfunctionofthesecond orderclosedloopcontrolsystemis,
𝟐
𝑚𝒏
C(s)/R(s)= 𝟐
𝒔𝟐+𝟐𝛇𝑚𝒏𝐬+𝑚𝒏

Case1:ζ=0(undampedsystem)
Substitute,δ=0inthetransferfunction.
2
C(s)/R(s)= 𝜔𝑛
𝑠2+𝜔2𝑛

𝜔𝑛2
⇒C(s)= (22)
𝑠2+ 𝜔2𝑛

R(s)Substitute,R(s)=1/sinequation22
 2
𝜔𝑛
C(s)= (23)
𝑠(𝑠2+𝜔2𝑛
)

Byusingpartialfraction the equation4canbewrittenas

C(s)=𝐴+𝐵𝑠+𝐶 (24)
𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝜔 2𝑛

After partialfractionA=1;B =-1;C=0 ‫؞‬C(s)= - 1 𝑠

(25)
𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝜔 2𝑛

ApplyinverseLaplacetransformonboththesides.
c(t)=1−cos(ωnt) (26)

So, the unit step response of the second order system whenζ= 0 will be a continuous timesignal
with constant amplitude and frequency. Since there is no damping with the time, thisresponse
does not die out with time. This response is known as undamped response as shown inthefigure.

Case2:ζ=1 (criticallydamped)

Substitute,ζ=1inthetransferfunction.
2 2
C(s)/R(s)= 𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛
2 2
𝑠2+2ζ𝜔𝑛s+𝜔𝑛 𝑠2+2𝜔𝑛s+𝜔𝑛
2
⇒C(s)=R(s) 𝜔𝑛 (27)
[s+𝜔𝑛]²

Substitute,R(s)=1/sinequation27
𝜔𝑛2
C(s) = (28)
s[s+𝜔𝑛]²

DopartialfractionsofEquation28
 2
𝜔𝑛
=𝑨
C(s)= 𝑩 𝑪
+ + (29)
s[s+𝜔𝑛]² s s+𝜔𝑛 [s+𝜔𝑛]²

After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as 1, −1 and and−ω n
respectively.SubstitutethesevaluesintheabovepartialfractionexpansionofC(s).
𝟏 −𝟏 − 𝜔𝑛 (30)
C(s)= + +
s s+𝜔𝑛 [s+𝜔𝑛]²

ApplyinverseLaplacetransformonboththesidesofEqs 30
c(t)=(1−𝑒−ωnt–ωnt𝑒−ωnt)=1-𝑒−ωnt(1+ωnt) (31)

So,theunitstepresponseofthesecondordersystemwilltrytoreachthestepinputinsteadystate.

Case3: 0 <ζ<1(underdamped system)

2
FromEquation(21) C(s)= 𝜔𝑛
2R(s)
𝑠2+2ζ𝜔𝑛s+𝜔𝑛

2
Substitute,R(s)=1/s,Hence C(s)= 𝜔𝑛 2
𝑠(𝑠2+2ζ𝜔𝑛s+𝜔𝑛)
Putting 𝑠2+2ζ𝜔𝑛s+𝜔2=[s+ζ𝜔]2+𝜔2(1−ζ2),weget
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 𝜔2𝑛
C(s)= . (32)
𝑠[s+ζ𝜔𝑛]2+𝜔2(𝑛1−ζ2)
Put𝜔2(1 −ζ2)=𝜔2andby doingpartial fractionsof Equation32
𝑛 𝑑
𝐵𝑠+𝐶
C(s)=𝐴+ (33)
𝑠 [s+ζ𝜔𝑛]2+𝜔2𝑑

Afterpartialfractionsweget
A=1
B=-1
C =-2ζ𝜔𝑛
Putting the values of A, B,C in Equation 33,wehave
C(s)=1- 𝑠+2ζ𝜔𝑛 = 1
𝑠+ζ 𝜔- ζ𝜔 𝑛
-𝑛
𝑠 [s+ζ𝜔 𝑛 ] 2− 2
𝜔 𝑑 𝑠 [s+ζ𝜔 𝑛 ] 2+𝜔 2 𝑑 [s+ζ𝜔 𝑛] 2+𝜔 2 𝑑

𝑠+ζ𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 √1−𝜁²
= 1- -𝜁
2
𝑠 1 [s+ζ𝜔 𝑛] +𝜔 𝑑
2 √1−𝜁²[s+ζ𝜔 𝑛] 2+𝜔 2 𝑑
𝑠=+ζ - 𝜁 𝜔𝑑 (34)
𝜔𝑛
2
- 2
𝑠 [s+ ζ𝜔𝑛] +𝜔 𝑑
2 2
√1−𝜁²[s+ζ𝜔 𝑛] +𝜔 𝑑
Takinginverse laplacetransformofEquation34
C(t)=1-𝑒−ζωntCos(ωd𝐭)-𝜁 𝑒−ζωntSin(ωd𝐭)
√1−𝜁²
−ζωnt
=1-𝑒 [√1−𝜁²Cos(ω d𝐭)-ζSin (ωd𝐭)] (35)
√1−𝜁²

Nowputting ζ=Cosф;√1−𝜁²=SinфSinceф=tan-1√1−𝜁²,henceequation35
ζ
becomes
−ζωnt
C(t)=1-𝑒 [SinфCos(ω d𝐭)-CosфSin(ωd𝐭)]
√1−𝜁²
−ζω nt
=1 -𝑒 sin(ω d𝐭+ф) (36)
√1−𝜁²

Equation(36)representsthesolutionfor0<ζ<1anditisrepresentedinfigureasgivenbelow.

Case4:ζ>1
Wecanmodifythe denominatortermofthesecondordertransferfunctionasfollows−
𝑠2+2ζ𝜔𝑛s+𝜔2=[s+ζ𝜔]2−𝜔2(ζ2−1)
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

Hencefromequation(32)
2 2
1
𝜔𝑛 =1. 𝑛
C(s) . (37)
𝑠[s+ζ𝜔𝑛]2− 𝜔2 (ζ2 −1)
𝑛 𝑠 (s +ζ𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑛 √𝜁²−1)(s+ζ𝜔𝑛 −𝜔𝑛 √𝜁²−1)
=

bydoing partialfractionsofEquation37
 𝐵 𝐶
C(s)= =𝐴+ + (38)
𝑠 (s+ζ𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑛 √𝜁²−1) (s+ζ𝜔𝑛 −𝜔𝑛 √𝜁²−1)

Aftersimplifying,youwillgetthevaluesof
A=1

B=1𝜁−√𝜁²−1)
2√𝜁²−1)
1𝜁+√𝜁²−1)
C=-
2 √𝜁²−1)

Substitutethe valueofA,B,Cinequation(38)

1 1
C(s)= =1+1𝜁−√𝜁²−1) −1𝜁+√𝜁²−1) (39)
𝑠 2 √𝜁²−1) (s+ζ𝜔 𝑛+𝜔 𝑛 √𝜁²−1) 2 √𝜁²−1) (s+ζ𝜔𝑛 −𝜔 𝑛 √𝜁²−1)

ApplyinverseLaplacetransformofequation(29)wehave

(40)

Equation(40)representsthesolution forζ>1 anditisrepresentedinfigureasgivenbelow.

TimeDomainSpecifications
Let us discuss the time domain specifications of the second order system. The step response
ofthesecond ordersystemfortheunderdamped caseisshowninthefollowingfigure.

All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The respse up to the
settlingtime is known as transient response and the response after the settling time is known as
steadystateresponse.

1. DelayTime
Itisthetimerequiredfortheresponsetoreach50%ofitsfinalvalueinfirstattempt.Itis denotedbytd.
Considerthestepresponseofthesecondordersystemfort≥0,when‘ζ’liesbetweenzeroandone.Fromeq
uation(36)
−ζωnt
c(t)=1-𝑒 sin(ω d𝐭 +ф)
√1−𝜁²

The finalvalueofthestepresponseisone.

Therefore,at t=t d,thevalueofthestepresponsewillbe0.5.Substitutethesevaluesinthe aboveequation.

−ζωnt
c(t)=0.5=1-𝑒 sin(ω𝑡 +ф)
d d𝑑
√1−𝜁²
𝑒−ζω nt
⇒ sin(ω
d𝑡𝑑+ф) =0.5
√1−𝜁²

Byusinglinearapproximation,you willgetthedelaytimet das

td=(1+0.7ζ)/ωn (40)
2. RiseTime
Itisthetimerequiredfortheresponsetorisefrom10%to90%ofthefinalvalueforoverdamped system
and 0% to 100% of its final value for the under-damped systems. Rise timeisdenotedbytr.
Att=tr,c(t)=1
Hencefromequation(36)
−ζωnt
c(t)=1-𝑒 sin(ω d𝐭+ф)
√1−𝜁²
−ζωnt
c(t)=1=1-𝑒 sin(ω𝑡+ф)
r d𝑟
√1−𝜁²
𝑒−ζω nt
⇒ sin(ω
d𝑡 𝑟 +ф)
=0
√1−𝜁²

⇒sin(ωdtr+ф)=0

⇒ωdtr+ф=π

⇒tr=(π−ф)/ωd (41)

From aboveequation,we can conclude thattherise time tr andthe dampedfrequency

ωdareinverselyproportionaltoeachother.

3. PeakTime
Itisthetimerequiredfortheresponsetoreachthepeakvalueforthefirsttime.Itisdenoted bytp.
Weknowthestepresponseofsecondordersystemforunder-dampedcaseis(fromequation36)
−ζωnt
c(t)=1-𝑒 sin(ω d𝐭+ф)
√1−𝜁²

Att=tp,thefirstderivateoftheresponseiszero. Hence

𝑑𝑐(𝑡𝑝)
=0
𝑑𝑡
𝑒−ζωn𝑡𝑝(−ζωn)𝑠𝑖𝑛(ωd𝑡𝑝+ ф) 𝑒−ζωn𝑡𝑝 ωdcos(ωd𝑡𝑝+ ф)
⇒0– - =0
√1−𝜁² √1−𝜁²
𝑒−ζωn𝑡 𝑝(−ζωn)𝑠𝑖𝑛(ωd𝑡 𝑝+ф) 𝑒 −ζω n𝑡 𝑝
ωdcos(ωd𝑡 𝑝+ф)
⇒ + =0
√1−𝜁² √1−𝜁²
⇒ζωn𝑠𝑖𝑛(ωd𝑡𝑝+ф)=ωdcos(ωd𝑡𝑝+ф)
⇒tan(ωd𝑡𝑝+ф)=ωd/ζωn
By puttingωd =ωn√1−𝜁²andф=tan
-1√1−𝜁²

ζ
ωn√1−𝜁²
tan (ωn√1 −𝜁²𝑡𝑝 +ф)= =tanф
ζωn

or ωn√1−𝜁²𝑡𝑝+ф=nπ+фforn
=1
𝜋
𝑡𝑝= (42)
ωn√1−𝜁²
4. PeakOvershoot
PeakovershootMpisdefinedasthedeviationoftheresponseatpeaktimefromthefinalvalueofresponse.I
t isalsocalled themaximumovershoot.
Mathematically,wecanwriteit as
Mp=c(tp)−c(∞)

Where,
c(tp)isthepeak valueoftheresponse.
c(∞) isthefinal(steadystate)valueoftheresponse.
−ζωt
nsin(ω +ф)
Fromequation(36) c(t)=1 -𝑒 d𝐭
√1−𝜁²

𝜋
Putt=tp= and ωd =ωn √1−𝜁²
ωn √1−𝜁²
𝑒−ζωn𝑡
‫؞‬ c(t) = 1 - sin(ωn√1−² +ф)
p 𝜁𝑡𝑝
√1−𝜁²
𝜋
−ζω n
ωn√1−𝜁²
=1-𝑒 sin(ω n √1−𝜁² 𝜋
+ф)
√1−𝜁² ωn√1−𝜁²

𝜁𝜋
− √1−𝜁² −𝜁𝜋
𝑒 √1−𝜁²
=1- sin(𝜋+ф)=1+ 𝑒 sinф
√1−𝜁² √1−𝜁²

𝜁𝜋
−
𝑒 √1−𝜁²
= 1+ √1−𝜁² sincesinф= √1−𝜁²
√1−𝜁²

𝜁𝜋

‫؞‬ c(tp)=1+
−
√1−𝜁²

−𝜁𝜋

‫؞‬ c(tp)−c(∞) 1+𝑒 √1−𝜁² −1

%MP = c(∞) x100= 1
x100

𝜁𝜋
−
Or %MP=𝑒√1−𝜁²x100 (43)

5. Settlingtime

It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the
specifiedtolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%.
Thesettlingtimeis denotedbyts.
Asseenfromequation26thetimeconstantoftheexponentialenvelopeisT=1/ ζωn.

The settling time of the second order system for 2% tolerance band is appx. Four times the
timeconstantTi.e.

ts= 4/
ζωn=4TThesettling timefor5%tolerancebandis-
 ts=3/ ζωn=3T

SteadyStateError

Itindicatetheerrorbetweentheactualoutputandthedesired

outputasttendstoinfinityi.e.ess=lim[𝑟(𝑡)−𝑐(𝑡)]=lim𝑟(𝑡)-lim𝑐(𝑡)
𝑡→0 𝑡→0 𝑡→0
−ζωnt
=lim1-lim[1-𝑒 sin (ωd𝐭+ф)]=1-1 =0
𝑡→0 𝑡→ √1−𝜁²
0

Thussecond order systemhaszerosteadystateerrortounitstepinput.

Example
Let us now find the time domain specifications of a control system having the closed
looptransfer function 4s2 +2s+4 when the unit step signal is applied as an input to this
controlsystem.
We know that the standard form of the transfer function of the second order closed loop
controlsystemas
C(s)/R(s)=ω2/sn2+2ζωns+ω2 n

Byequatingthesetwotransferfunctions,wewillgettheun-
dampednaturalfrequencyωnas2rad/secandthedampingratioζas 0.5.
Weknowthe formulafordampedfrequencyωdas
ωd=ωn√1−ζ2
Substituteωnandδ valuesintheabove formula.

⇒ωd=2√1−0.52

⇒ωd=1.732rad/sec

Substitute,δvalueinfollowing relation
Ф=cos-1ζ

⇒ф=cos-1(0.5)= π/3rad

Substitute the above necessary values in the formula of each time domain specification
andsimplifyin orderto getthevaluesoftimedomainspecificationsforgiventransferfunction.
 SteadyStateErrorAnalysis

Thedeviationoftheoutputofcontrolsystemfromdesiredresponseduringsteadystateisknown as
steady state error. It is represented as ess. We can find steady state error using
thefinalvaluetheoremasfollows.
ess=limt→∞e(t)=lims→0sE(s)
Where,
E(s)istheLaplace transformoftheerrorsignal,e(t)
Letusdiscusshowtofindsteadystateerrorsforunityfeedbackandnon-
unityfeedbackcontrolsystemsonebyone.
SteadyStateErrorsforUnityFeedbackSystems
Considerthe followingblock diagram of closedloopcontrol
system,whichishavingunitynegativefeedback.

Where,

 R(s)istheLaplace transformofthe reference Input signalr(t)

 C(s)istheLaplacetransformofthe outputsignal c(t)
Weknowthetransferfunctionoftheunitynegativefeedbackclosedloopcontrolsystemas
C(s)/R(s)=G(s)/1+G(s)

⇒C(s)=R(s)G(s)/1+G(s)

Theoutputofthesumming pointis-
E(s)=R(s)−B(s)=R(s) –C(s)H(s)=R(s)–E(s)G(s)H(s)

⇒E(s)[1+G(s)H(s)]=R(s)

⇒E(s)=R(s)/[1+G(s)H(s)]

For H(s)=1 E(s)=R(s)/[1+G(s)]

SubstituteE(s)valueinthesteadystateerror formula
 ess =lim𝑠→0sR(s)/1+G(s)

Thefollowingtableshowsthesteadystateerrorsandtheerrorconstantsforstandardinputsignalslikeunit
step,unitramp &unitparabolicsignals.

Inputsignal Steadystateerroress Errorconstant

1/1+kp Kp=lim𝑠→0G(s)
unitstepsignal

1/Kv Kv=lim𝑠→0sG(s)
unit rampsignal

1/Ka Ka=lim𝑠→0s2G(s)
unit parabolicsignal

WhereKp,KvandKaarepositionerrorconstant,velocityerrorconstantandaccelerationerrorconstantr
espectively.
Note –
1. Ifanyoftheaboveinputsignalshastheamplitudeotherthanunity,thenmultiplycorrespondingstead
ystateerrorwiththatamplitude.
2. We can’t define the steady state error for the unit impulse signal because, it exists only
atorigin. So, we can’t compare the impulse response with the unit impulse input as t
denotesinfinity.

Example
Let us find the steady state error for an input signal r(t)=(5+2t+t 2/2)u(t) of unity
negativefeedbackcontrolsystemwithG(s)=5(s+4)/s2 (s+1)(s+20)
The given input signal is a combination of three signals step, ramp and parabolic. The
followingtableshowsthe errorconstantsand steadystateerrorvaluesforthesethreesignals.

Inputsignal Errorconstant Steadystateerror

r1(t)=5u(t) Kp=lim𝑠→0G(s)=∞ ess1=5/1+kp=0

r2(t)=2tu(t) Kv=lim𝑠→0sG(s)=∞ ess2=2/Kv=0

r3(t)=t2/2u(t) Ka=lim𝑠→0s²G(s)=1 ess3=1/ka=1

Wewillgettheoverallsteadystate error,byaddingtheabove threesteadystateerrors.

ess=ess1+ess2+ess3

⇒ess=0+0+1=1
Therefore,wegotthesteadystateerroressas1forthisexample.

SteadystateerrorfordifferenttypesofinputforType-0, Type-1andType-2 systems.

Effectofaddingpolesandzerototransferfunction

Effectofadditionofpoletotransferfunction:

1) As the pole moves towards the origin in s plane, the rise time increases and the
maximumovershoot decreases, as far as the overshoot is concerned, adding a pole to the closed
looptransfer function has just the opposite effect to that of adding a pole to forward path
transferfunctionas discussedinthelastarticle.

2) Theadditionoflefthalfpoletendstoslowdownthesystemresponse.

3) The effectofadditionofpolebecomesmorepronouncedaspolelocation driftsaway

fromimaginaryaxis.

4) Additionofrighthalfpolewillmakeoverallsystemresponseto

beanunstableone.Effectofadditionofzerototransferfunction:

1) Makesthesystemoverallresponsefaster.

2) Risetime,peaktime,decreasesbutovershootincreases.

3) Addition of right half zeros means system response slower and system exhibits
inverseresponse. Suchsystemsaresaidtobenon-minimumphasesystems.
 Analysisof stabilitybyRootLocusTechnique

Stability:
Asystemissaidtobestable,ifitsoutputisundercontrol.Otherwise,itissaidtobeunstable.Astablesystem
producesabounded output for agivenboundedinput.
Thefollowingfigureshowstheresponseofastablesystem.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has
thevalues between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has
thevalue of one for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore,
thefirstordercontrolsystemis stablesinceboththe input and the outputarebounded.

TypesofSystems basedonStability
Wecanclassifythesystemsbased onstabilityasfollows.

 Absolutelystablesystem
 Conditionallystablesystem
 Marginallystablesystem

AbsolutelyStableSystem
If the system is stable for all the rangeof system componentvalues,thenitis known
astheabsolutelystablesystem.Theopenloopcontrolsystemisabsolutelystableifallthepoles of the
open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closedloop control
system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer
functionpresentinthelefthalfofthe‘s’plane.
ConditionallyStableSystem
Ifthesystemisstableforacertainrangeofsystemcomponentvalues,thenitisknownasconditionallys
table system.
MarginallyStableSystem
If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and
constantfrequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known asmarginally stable
system.The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop
transferfunctionispresentontheimaginaryaxis.Similarly,theclosedloopcontrolsystemismargina
lly stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on theimaginaryaxis.

Conditionforstability
Letusconsideratransferfunctionofaclosedloopsystem:
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑎0𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑎1𝑠 𝑚−1 + 𝑎2𝑠 𝑚−2 +...+𝑎𝑚−1𝑠1 +𝑎𝑚𝑠 0
= ;
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑠𝑛 +𝑎1𝑠𝑛−1 + 𝑎2𝑠 𝑛−2 +...+𝑎𝑛−1𝑠1 + 𝑎𝑛𝑠0

Here the characteristics Equation : 𝑎0 𝑠𝑛+𝑎1𝑠𝑛−1+𝑎2 𝑠𝑛−2+. . . +𝑎𝑛−1𝑠1+𝑎𝑛𝑠0 =

0Necessaryandsufficientconditionsforstability:

1. Allthecoefficientsofthech.Equationshouldhavesamesign.

2. Thereshouldbeno missingterm.

Routh-HurwitzStabilityCriterion
ThiscriterionisbasedonorderingthecoefficientsofthecharacteristicsequationintoanarraycalledRout
h’s array. TheRouth’sarrayis formedas follows.
FollowthisprocedureforformingtheRouthtable.
 Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the
characteristicpolynomial as mentioned in the table. Start with the coefficient of s n and
continue uptothecoefficientofs0.
 Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with theelementsas mentioned in the table .
Continue this process till you get the first column elementof row s0is an.Here,anisthe
coefficientofs0 inthecharacteristicpolynomial.
Note−IfanyrowelementsoftheRouthtablehavesomecommonfactor,thenyoucandividetheroweleme
ntswiththatfactorforthesimplificationwillbeeasy.
Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is -
a0sn+a1sn-1+a2sn-2+...+an-1s1+ans0=0

a0 a2 a4 a6 ... ...
sn

sn-1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ... ...

sn-2 b1=(a1a2− b2=(a1a4−a5a0 b3=(a1a6−a7 ... ... ...

a3a0)/a1 )/a1 a0)/a1

sn-3 c1=(b1a3−b2 c2=(b1a5−b3a ⋮⋮

a1)/b1 1)/b1
⋮⋮ ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮

S1 ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮

S0 an

SufficientConditionforRouth-HurwitzStability
The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
shouldhave the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh
arrayshouldbeeitherpositiveornegative.

Example
Letusfindthestabilityofthecontrolsystemhavingcharacteristic
equation,S4+3s3+3s2+2s+1=0
Step1−VerifythenecessaryconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.
Allthecoefficientsofthecharacteristicpolynomial,S4+3s3+3s2+2s+1arepositive.So,thecontrolsyste
msatisfies the necessarycondition.
Step2−Formthe Routharrayforthegivencharacteristicpolynomial.

S4 1 3 1

S3 3 2

S2 (3×3)−(2×1) (3×1)−(0×1)
=7/3 =1
3 3

S1 (7/3×2)−(1×3)
=5/7
7/3

S0 1

Step3−VerifythesufficientconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.
AlltheelementsofthefirstcolumnoftheRoutharrayarepositive.Thereisnosignchangeinthefirstcol
umnoftheRoutharray.So,thecontrolsystemis stable.
SpecialCasesofRouthArrayThet
wospecialcasesare−

 Thefirstelementofanyrowofthe Routharrayiszero.
 Allthe elementsofany rowofthe Routharrayarezero.
Letusnowdiscuss howto overcomethedifficultyinthesetwo cases,onebyone.
FirstElementofanyrowoftheRoutharrayiszero
IfanyrowoftheRoutharraycontainsonlythefirstelementaszeroandatleastoneoftheremainingelement
s havenon-zerovalue,thenreplacethefirstelementwithasmallpositive
 integer,
ϵ.AndthencontinuetheprocessofcompletingtheRouthtable.Now,findthenumberofsignchangesinth
e firstcolumnoftheRouthtablebysubstitutingϵtendstozero.
Example
Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic
equation,S4+2s3+s2+2s+1=0
Step1−VerifythenecessaryconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.
Allthecoefficientsofthecharacteristicpolynomial,S4+2s3+s2+2s+1arepositive.So,thecontrolsystem
satisfiedthenecessarycondition.
Step2−FormtheRoutharrayforthegivencharacteristicpolynomial.

S4 1 1 1

S3
2 2

S2 0 1

S1

S0
Special case(i) − Only thefirstelement of row s2 is zero. So, replaceitby ϵ and
continuetheprocess ofcompletingtheRouthtable
.
s4 1 1 1

s3 1 1

s2 ϵ 1

s1 [(ϵ×1)−(1×1])/ϵ= (ϵ−1)/ϵ

s0 1

Step3−VerifythesufficientconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.Asϵ
tends to zero,the Routhtablebecomeslikethis.
s4 1 1 1

s3
1 1

s2 0 1
s1 -∞

s0 1

TherearetwosignchangesinthefirstcolumnofRouthtable.Hence,thecontrolsystemisunstable.

Allthe Elementsofanyrowofthe
RoutharrayarezeroInthiscase,followthesetwosteps−
 Writetheauxilaryequation,A(s)oftherow,whichisjustabovetherowofzeros.
 Differentiatetheauxiliaryequation,A(s)withrespecttos.Filltherowofzeroswiththesecoef
ficients.
Example
Letusfindthestabilityofthecontrolsystemhavingcharacteristicequation,S 5+3s4+s3+3s2+s+3=0
Step1−VerifythenecessaryconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.
Allthecoefficientsofthegivencharacteristicpolynomialarepositive.
So,thecontrolsystemsatisfiedthe necessarycondition.
Step2−FormtheRoutharrayforthegivencharacteristicpolynomial.

s5 1 1 1

s4 31 31 31

s3 0 0

s2

s1

s0
The row s4 elements have the common factor of 3. So, all these elements are divided by
3.Specialcase(ii)−Alltheelementsofrow
s3arezero.So,writetheauxiliaryequation,A(s)oftherows4.
A(s)=s4+s2+1
Differentiatetheaboveequationwithrespect tos.
dA(s)
=4s3+2s
𝑑𝑠

Placethesecoefficientsinrows3.
s5
1 1 1
s4 1 1 1

s3 4 2

s2 0.5 1

s1 −3

s0
1

Step3−VerifythesufficientconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.
There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system
isunstable.
In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop poles areinon
left half of the ‘s’ plane or on the right half of the ‘s’ plane or on an imaginary axis. So,we
can’t find the nature of the control system. To overcome this limitation, there is
atechniqueknownastherootlocus.Wewilldiscussthistechniqueinthenext twochapters.
 RootLocus

In the root locus diagram, we can observe the path of the closed loop poles. Hence, we
canidentify the nature of the control system. In this technique, we will use an open loop
transferfunctiontoknowthe stabilityoftheclosedloopcontrolsystem.
TheRootlocusisthelocusof therootsof
thecharacteristicequationbyvaryingsystemgainKfromzerotoinfinity.
AngleConditionandMagnitudeCondition
The points on the root locus branches satisfy the angle condition. So, the angle condition
isused to know whether the point exist on root locus branch or not. We can find the value of
Kfor the points on the root locus branches by using magnitude condition. So, we can use
themagnitudeconditionfor thepoints,andthissatisfiesthe anglecondition.
Characteristic equation of closed loop control system
is1+G(s)H(s)=0

⇒G(s)H(s)=−1+j0
ThephaseangleofG(s)H(s)is
∠G(s)H(s)=tan-10/(−1)=(2n+1)π
Theangleconditionisthepointatwhichtheangleoftheopenlooptransferfunctionisanoddmultiple
of1800.
MagnitudeofG(s)H(s)is-
|G(s)H(s)|=√(−1)²+0²=1
Themagnitudeconditionisthatthepoint(whichsatisfiedtheanglecondition)atwhichthemagnitudeoft
heopen looptransferfunction is one.

RulesforConstruction ofRootLocus
Followtheserulesforconstructingarootlocus.
Rule1
−Locatetheopenlooppolesandzerosinthe‘s’plane.Rule2−Find
thenumberofrootlocusbranches.
We know that the root locus branches startat the open loop poles and endeither at openloop
zeros or at ∞. So, the number of root locus branches N is equal to the number of
finiteopenlooppolesP orthenumberoffinite openloop zerosZ,whicheverisgreater.
Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches N
asN=PifP≥Z
N=Z ifP<Z
Rule3− Identifyanddrawthe realaxisrootlocusbranches.
A point or segment on the real axis lies on the root locus if the sum of open loop poles
andopenloopzerostotheright ofthis pointorsegmentis odd.
Rule4−Findthecentroidand theangleofasymptotes.
Asymptotesgivethedirectionoftheserootlocusbranches.Numbe
r ofAsymptotes=P-Z
The intersection point of asymptotes on the real axis is known as
centroid.Wecancalculatethecentroid𝝈𝑨byusingthisformula,
 ∑Realpartoffiniteopenlooppoles−∑RealpartoffiniteopenloopzerosP−Z
𝝈 𝑨=
Theformulafortheangleofasymptotesis
ФA=
(2q+1)180
P−Z

Where,
q=0,1,2,...,(P−Z−1)
Rule5−Find the intersectionpointsofroot locusbrancheswithanimaginaryaxis.
Wecancalculatethepointatwhichtherootlocusbranchintersectstheimaginaryaxisandthevalueof
Katthatpointbyusing theRoutharraymethod
Rule6−FindBreak-awayandBreak-inpoints.
 If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles, then
therewillbeabreak-away point in betweenthesetwoopenlooppoles.
 Ifthereexistsarealaxisrootlocusbranchbetweentwoopenloopzeros,thentherewillbeabrea
k-inpointinbetweenthesetwoopenloopzeros.
Note−Break-awayandbreak-
inpointsexistonlyontherealaxisrootlocusbranches.Followthesesteps tofind break-
awayandbreak-inpoints.
 WriteK intermsofsfromthecharacteristicequation1+G(s)H(s)=0
  Differentiate K with respect to s andmakeitequal tozero. Substitute these
valuesofsintheaboveequation.
 The values of s for which the K value is positive are the break
points.Rule7−Find theangleofdepartureandtheangleofarrival.
TheAngleofdepartureandtheangleofarrivalcan
becalculatedatcomplexconjugateopenlooppolesandcomplexconjugateopenloopzerosrespectively.
Theformulafortheangleofdepartureϕdis
Φd=180–sumoftheanglesofvectorsdrawntothispoletootherpoles+sumoftheanglesofvectors
drawntothis poletozeros
Theformulafortheangleofarrivalϕ ais

Φa =180–
sumoftheanglesofvectorsdrawntothiszerotootherzeros+sumoftheanglesofvectorsdrawntothis
zerotopoles
Example

Letusnowdrawthe
rootlocusofthecontrolsystemhavingopenlooptransferfunctionG(s)H(s)= 𝑘
s(s+1)(s+5)

Step 1 − The given open loop transfer function has three poles at s=0, s=−1 and s=−5.
Itdoesn’t have any zero. Therefore, the number of root locus branches is equal to the
numberofpoles oftheopenloop transferfunction.

N=P=3

Thethreepolesarelocatedareshownintheabovefigure.The line segmentbetween s=−1 and s=0

is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the other branch of
therootlocusontherealaxisisthelinesegment totheleftofs=−5i.ein between-5 and ∞.
Step 2 − We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by using
thegivenformulae.
0−1−5
Centroid𝝈𝑨 = 3−0=−2 (2q+1)180 (2q+1)180
TheangleofasymptotesФA= = forq=0,1,2angleofasymptotes
P−Z 3−0
areθ=60⁰,180⁰and300⁰

Thecentroid andthreeasymptotesareshowninthefollowingfigure.
Step 3 − Since two asymptotes have the angles of 60ᵒ and 300ᵒ, two root locus
branchesintersect the imaginary axis. By using the Routh array method and special case(ii),
theintersectsofrootlocus branchestothe imaginaryaxiscan befoundoutas below

ThecharacteristicsequationofthegivenTFis1+G(s)H(s)=0
Or 1+ 𝑘 =0
s(s+1)(s+5)
Ors3+6s2+5s+K=0
Routharray

s3 1 5

s2 6 k

s1 30−𝑘 0
6
s0 k

ForsystemstabilitythecoefficientofRouth’sarrayhavingpositiveandnonzerovaluehence:
K>0
30−𝑘
>0ork<30
6
TherangeofKforwhichthesystembecamestableis0<k<30Atk =30,
thesystem auxiliary equation is
6s2+30=0
Or s=±𝑗√5
Hencetherootlocus intersecttheimaginaryaxisat±𝑗√5

Step 4 − There will be one break-away point on the real axis root locus branch between
thepoles s=−1 and s=0. By following the procedure given for the calculation of break-
awaypoint,
Thecharacteristicsequation s3+6s2+5s+K=0
OrK=-(s3+6s2+5s)
𝑑𝑘
=0
𝑑𝑠

Or3 s2+12s+5=0
Therootsofs=-0.473,-3.52
Sincebreakawaypointmustliebetween0and-1,itisclearthat s=−0.473is
actualbreakawaypoint.
Therootlocusdiagramforthegivencontrolsystemis showninthefollowingfigure.

Example:- Afeedbackcontrolsystemhasopen-looptransferfunction

Draw root locus as K is varied from 0 to ∞

.Solution:
Step-1:-FindOLpoles andOLzeros fromtheOLTF

OL poles are S=0,-3, (-1+j1) and (-1-

j1)Therearenofinite OLzeros.
MarkOLpolewithcrossand OLzerowithcircleinS-planeasshown.
Step-2Findthepartsoftherealaxisatwhichrootlocuslies.

A point on real axis lies on root locus if the number of OL poles+OL zeros on the real axis
totherightofthepointisodd.HencetheRoot locusexistbetweens=0ands=-3intherealaxis.

Step-3 Number of root locus branches N = P=

4Step-4Findnumberofasymptotes:

Number of asymptotes = P - Z = 4 (where P,Z = nos of open loop pole and

zero)Step-5Calculation forcetroid

∑Realpartoffiniteopenlooppoles−∑RealpartoffiniteopenloopzerosP−Z
𝝈 𝑨=

Step-6Calculationforasymptoticangle:

ФA=(2q+1)180 For
P−Z

q=0;Forq=

1;

Forq=2;
 Forq=3;
So,fromsteps2,3and4,fourasymptotescuttherealaxisat-
1.25andmakeangles450,1350,2250and3150,as shownbelow.

Step-7:
Find
thebreakaway
points(points at which two or more root locus branches meet)

Breakawaypointsarethe solutions of (dKa/ds)=0

Thecharacteristic equationwillbe

S(S+3)(S2+2S+2)+Ka=0

Fromthecharacteristicequation,
Ka=-S(S+3)(S2+2S+2)=-(S4+5S3+8S2+6S)

Weget,S=-2.3,(-0.725±j0.365)

Not all values obtained as solutions of (dKa/ds)=0 need to be necessarily the

breakawaypoints. Out of the obtained s values only those values of S which satisfy angle
condition aretheactualbreakawaypoints.

Oncheckingangleconditionwefindthat(-0.725±j0.365)donotsatisfyit.Therefore,onlyS= -2.3 is
the only breakaway point. So, the real axis from 0 to -3 contains root locus
whichbreakdownat-2.3 as shown.
Step-8 :- Find angles of departure as there is a presence of pole in complex plane
(anglewhicharootlocusbranchstartingfromanopenlooppole,makeswithalineparalleltotheasymp
toticline.
Theformulafortheangleofdepartureϕdis
Φd=180–sumoftheanglesofvectorsdrawntothispoletootherpoles+sumoftheanglesofvectors
drawntothis poletozeros
OrΦd=180 –(900+1350+26.60)=-71.60
So,rootlocusbranchstartsfrom(-1+j1)atanangle-
71.60.Sincerootlocusisalwaysmirrorimageaboutrealaxis,therefore,root locusstarts from(-1-
j1)at+71.60.

Step-9:-Findthepointsatwhichrootlocusbranches
intersectjwaxis.Thecharacteristic equationwillbe
S(S+3)(S2+2S+2)+Ka=0

OrS4+5S3+8S2+6S+Ka=0, Makerouthsarray;
S4 1 8 Ka

S3 5 6

S2 (5×8)−(6×1) Ka
=6.8
5

S1 (6.8×6)−(Ka× 5)
6.8
S0 Ka

ForthesystemtobestableallthecoefficientofthefirstcolumnoftheRouth’sarrayhavingpositiveand
nonzerovalue.Henceforsystemstability
Ka>0
(6.8×6)−(Ka×5)
>0
6.8
Or0<Ka<8.16
For Ka=8.16the Auxiliaryequation is6.8s2+8.16=0
Ors2=-1.2
Ors=±j1.1The
points of intersection comes out to be +j1.1 and –
j1.1Thecomplete rootlocusis shownbelow.
EffectsofAdding OpenLoopPoles andZerosonRootLocus
Effectofadditionofopen looppole Effectofadditionofopen loopzero
 FrequencyResponseAnalysis
Introduction:
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady
stateresponse. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady state
responseof a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequencyresponse. In this
chapter, wewillfocus onlyon the steadystateresponse.
If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then
itproducesthesteadystateoutput,whichisalsoasinusoidalsignal.Theinputandoutputsinusoidalsignals
havethesame frequency, but differentamplitudes andphaseangles.
Lettheinputand outputsignalbe−
r(t)=Asin(ωt) (1)

c(t)=Bsin(ωt+ф) (2)

Theopenloop transferfunctionwillbe−
G(s)=G(jω)

WecanrepresentG(jω)intermsofmagnitudeandphaseasshownbelow.
G(jω)=|G(jω)|∠G(jω)

Theoutputsignal is
c(t)=A|G(jω)|sin(ωt+∠G(jω)) (3)

 Theamplitudeoftheoutputsinusoidalsignalisobtainedbymultiplyingthe
amplitudeoftheinput sinusoidal signal and the magnitudeof G(jω)at ω.
 The phase of theoutputsinusoidalsignalisobtainedby addingthe phase ofthe
inputsinusoidalsignal and the phaseof G(jω)at ω
Where,
 Ais theamplitudeoftheinputsinusoidalsignal.
 Ωisangularfrequencyoftheinputsinusoidalsignal.Wec
an write,angularfrequencyωasshown below.
ω=2πf

Here, f is thefrequencyoftheinput sinusoidalsignal. Similarly, you can

followthesameprocedurefor closed loop control system.

Correlationbetweentimeandfrequencyresponse:
The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency and
bandwidth.Considerthetransfer functionofthe secondorderclosed loopcontrol systemas,
 T(s)=C(s)/R(s)=ωn2/(s2+2ζωns+ωn2)

Substitute,s=jωin theaboveequation.
T(jω)=ωn2/(jω)2+2ζωn(jω)+ωn2
2
⇒T(jω)=
𝜔𝑛2
2
=𝑛 𝜔 2
1
2
−𝜔+2𝑗ζωω𝑛+ω 2 𝜔
𝜔 𝑛 (− )+2𝑗𝜁( ω
𝑛 2 )+1
𝜔𝑛 ω𝑛

⇒T(jω)= 1 (4)
2
𝜔 ω
(1− )+𝑗2𝜁( )
𝜔2𝑛 ω𝑛

Let,𝜔=uSubstitutethisvalueintheaboveequation.
𝜔𝒏
1
T(jω)= (1− 2 ) (5)
𝑢 +𝑗2𝜁𝑢

MagnitudeofT(jω)is -
M=|T(jω)|= 1
(6)
2
√( 1−𝑢2)+(2𝜁𝑢)2

PhaseofT(jω)is -
2𝜁𝑢
∠T(jω)=−tan−1 (7)
(1−𝑢2)

Thesteady-stateoutput ofthesystemforasinusoidalinputofunit
magnitudeandvariablefrequencyωisgiven by
2𝜁𝑢
C(t)= 1 Sin(ωt-tan-1 ) (8)
2
√( 1−𝑢2)+ (2𝜁𝑢) 2 (1−𝑢2)

ResonantFrequency:
Itisthefrequencyatwhichthemagnitudeofthefrequencyresponsehaspeakvalueforthefirst time.It is
denotedbyωr.Atω=ωrthe firstderivateofthemagnitudeofT(jω)iszero.
DifferentiateMwith respecttou.
𝑑𝑀|u=ur 1 −4(1−𝑢2)𝑢 +8𝜁 2𝑢
𝑑𝑢 =− 2[ 𝑟 𝑟
22 (
𝑟=0
23/2 )
(1−𝑢𝑟) +2𝜁𝑢𝑟 ]
2
⇒4𝑢3-4ur+8𝜁 𝑢 =0
𝑟 𝑟

⇒ur =√1−2𝜁2 (9)

i.e,ωr=ωn√1−2𝜁2 (10)

ResonantPeak:
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω). It is denoted by
Mr.Atu=ur, the Magnitudeof T(jω)is -
 M=|T(jω)|= 1
2
√( 1−𝑢2)+ (2𝜁𝑢)2

Substitute,ur= √1−2𝜁2intheaboveequation,we get

Mr= 1
(11)
2𝜁√1−𝜁2

ThephaseangleofT(jω)at resonantfrequencyurobtainedfromequation 7is

Фr=-tan-1[√1−2𝜁2/𝜁] (12)

Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot in the time
domaintransientresponseforcertainvaluesofdampingratio𝜁.So,theresonantpeakandpeakovershootar
ecorrelated to each other.

Bandwidth:
Itistherangeof
frequenciesoverwhich,themagnitudeofT(jω)dropsto70.7%(0.707)fromitszerofrequencyvalue.
At ω=0, the value of u will be
zero.Substitute,u=0inM,frmequation6
1
M= =1
2
√( 1−02)+ (2𝜁0)2

Therefore,themagnitude ofT(jω)isoneatω=0.
At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω) will be 70.7% of magnitude of T(jω) at
ω=0.i.e.,at ω=ωb, M=0.707(1)=1/√2

1
FromEquation6: M =1=
√2 √(1−𝑢𝑏2) 2+( 2𝜁𝑢𝑏) 2

⇒2=(1−ub2)2+(2𝜁)2u2 b
Let,ub2=x
⇒2=(1−x)2 +(2𝜁)2 x⇒x2+(4𝜁2 −2)x−1=0
 −(4𝜁 2−2)±√(4𝜁 2−2) 2−4
⇒x= 2

Consideronlythepositive valueofx.
−(4𝜁2−2)+√(4𝜁2−2)2−4
x=
2

or
b b n X=1−2𝜁2√2−4𝜁2+4𝜁4Subs
titute,x=u2=ω2/ω2
ωb 2/ωn 2=1−2𝜁2√2−4𝜁2+4𝜁4

⇒ωb=ωn √1−2𝜁2√2−4𝜁2+4𝜁4 (13)

Bandwidthωbinthefrequencyresponseisinverselyproportionaltotherisetimetrinthetimedomaintransi
ent response.
 BodePlots

Sinusoidal transfer function is graphically represented by Bode plot for determining the
stabilityofthecontrol system. Bodeplot is a logarithmicplotand consists of two plots.

 Aplotofthelogarithmic(base10)ofmagnitude(indecibel)Vsfrequencyin logarithmicscalei.e.
logω.
 A plotofPhaseplot(ф)Vs frequencyin logarithmic scale i.e.logω.
Inboththeplots,x-axisrepresentsangularfrequency(logarithmicscale).Whereas,y-axisrepresents the
magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot
andthephaseangle(linear scale)oftheopen loop transfer functionin thephaseplot.
Themagnitudeoftheopenlooptransfer functionindB (decibel)is-
M=20log|G(jω)H(jω)| (1)

Thephaseangleoftheopenloop transferfunction indegrees is-

ϕ=∠G(jω)H(jω) (2)

Note−thebaseoflogarithm is 10.

BasicofBodePlots
Letthegeneralisedexpressionforopen-looptransferfunctionofasystembegivenby:

(3)
Puts=jωin equation3,weget

(4)

(5)

Whereu=ω/ωn

Fromequation5,themagnitudeofG(jω)H(jω)indecibels isgivenby

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)
Procedureforplotting Bodeplot:
Step1:Rewritetheopenlooptransferfunctioninthetimeconstant
formasgiveninequation4.Step2:Identifythecornerfrequenciesassociatedwitheachfactorofthetransf
erfunction.
Step3:Afterknowingthecornerfrequencies,drawtheasymptoticmagnitudeplot.Thisplotconsistsof
straightlinesegments withlineslopechangingateachcornerfrequencyasfollows.
(i)+20db /decade fora zero and+20ndb/decadeforazero ofmultiplicityn.
(ii)-20db/decadefor apole and-20n db/decadefor apole of multiplicityn.
(iii) + 40db/decade for a complex conjugate zero and + 40n db/decade for a
complexConjugatezero ofmultiplicityn.
(iv)-40db/decade for a complex conjugate pole and - 40n db/decade for a
complexConjugatepole ofmultiplicityn.
Step3: InitialslopeofBodeplotarecalculatedasfollows.
(i) For type zero system draw a line up to first (lowest) corner frequency having
0db/decadeslope.
(ii) Fortypeonesystemdrawalinehavingslopeof -20db/decadeupto
ω=K.Markfirst(lowest)cornerfrequency.
(ii)Fortype twosystem drawalinehavingslopeof-40db/decadeup to ω=√K
andsoon.Markfirst(lowest) cornerfrequency.
Step4:Drawalineuptosecondcornerfrequencybyaddingtheslopeofnextpoleorzerotothepreviousslope
and so on.
Step5:Calculatephaseanglefordifferentvaluesofωfromtheequation 9and joinall points.

Note−Thecornerfrequency(ω=1/K)isthefrequencyatwhichthereisachangeintheslopeofthemagnitude
plot.
Example1: Drawthe bodeplotforunityfeedbackcontrolsystemhavingG(s)= 1000.
(𝑠+100)

Solution:
Step1:Open-looptransferfunctionintimeconstantformisgivenby
G(s)H(s)=1000
(𝑠+100)
1000 10
= (𝑠+100)1
= (Timeconstantform)
100 00 (1+0.01𝑠)

Puts=jω G(jω)H(jω)= 10
(1+𝑗0.01ω)

Step2:Cornerfrequencyω=1/0.001=100
Step3:Thereisonepoleonthe realaxishencemagnitudeplotisastraightlinehavingslopeof-20db/decade.
Step4:Asthesystem istypezerosystemso magnitudeplot is astraightlineparallelto odbaxis
andhavingmagnitude 20log10K=20log1010=20db.
Step5:phase angleф= -tan-10.01ω.The tableshows value ofф when ωvaries from 0 to∞.
Example 2: Draw the bode plot for unity feedback control system
havingG(s)=5(s+2)/s(s+10)
Puts=jω

G(jω)=

|G(jω) |∠G(jω)
Magnitudeplot:

Sl. Factor CornerFre Slope Asymptoticlogmagnitude

No quency
1 1 None -20 Straightlineofslope-20db/decadeandintersecting
𝑗𝜔 db/decade the 0 dB axis at ω=K=1and extenduptofirst
corner frequency2.
2 1+0.5𝑗𝜔 2 +20 Draw anetslope(-20) +(+20)= 0db/decade
db/decade fromcornerfrequency2tothenextcornerfreque
ncy10.
3 1 10 -20 Drawthenetslopeof0+(-20)=-
1 +0.1 𝑗𝜔 db/decade 20db/decadefromcornerfrequency10to ∞.
Note:Arrangethetableinincreasingorderofcornerfrequency.

Fordifferentvalueofωcalculatephaseangle∠G(jω) andjoinall thepointsbyfreehand.

ComputationofGainMarginandPhaseMargin
FromtheBodeplots,wecansaywhetherthecontrolsystemisstable,marginallystableorunstablebased on
the values of theseparameters.

 Gaincrossoverfrequencyandphasecrossover frequency
 Gainmarginandphasemargin

PhaseCrossoverFrequency
Thefrequency atwhichthephaseplot ishaving thephaseof-1800 isknownasphasecrossover
frequency. Itisdenotedbyωpc.Theunitofphasecrossover frequencyis rad/sec.
GainCrossoverFrequency
ThefrequencyatwhichthemagnitudeplotishavingthemagnitudeofzerodBisknownasgain crossoverfre
quency.Itisdenotedbyω gc.Theunitof gaincrossoverfrequencyisrad/sec.
Thestabilityofthecontrolsystembasedontherelationbetweenthephasecrossoverfrequencyandthegain
cross over frequencyis listed below.
 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequencyωpcisgreaterthanthegaincrossoverfrequencyω gc,thenthecontro
l system isstable.
 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequencyωpcisequaltothegaincrossoverfrequency ωgc,thenthecontrol
system ismarginally stable.
 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequencyωpcislessthanthegaincrossoverfrequency ω gc,thenthecontrol
system isunstable.

ωpc>ωgc, GM&PMare+ve ωpc<ωgc, GM &PM are–ve ωpc=ωgc, GM=PM=0

StableSystem Un-stableSystem marginallystablesystem

GainMargin
Gain margin GM is defined as the margin in gain allowable by which gain can be increased
tillsystem reaches on the verge of instability. It is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at
phasecrossoverfrequency. Mathematically
1
GM=20log10( )=- 20log10 |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝜔=𝜔𝑝𝑐 𝜔=𝜔𝑝𝑐

Theunit ofgain margin(GM)isdB.

PhaseMargin
Phasemargincanbedefinedastheamountofadditionalphaselagwhichcanbeintroducedinthesystemtillt
hesystemreacheson thevergeofinstability.TheformulaforphasemarginPMis
PM=[∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝜔=𝜔]–(-180⁰)
𝑔𝑐

=180ᵒ+[∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝜔=𝜔 𝑔𝑐]

Theunitofphasemargin isdegrees.
Thestabilityofthecontrolsystembasedontherelationbetweengainmarginandphasemarginislisted
below.
 If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are positive, then the control
systemis stable.
 If boththe gain margin GMand the phase margin PM are equaltozero, then the
controlsystemismarginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative, then the
controlsystemis unstable.
Example3:Aunityfeedbackcontrolsystemhas
G(s)= 𝟐𝟎
𝒔(𝟏+𝟎.𝟏𝒔)(𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝒔)
Drawthebodeplot.FindGaincrossoverfrequency,phasecrossoverfrequency,gainmarginandphase
margin.
Solution:Puts=jωinopenlooptransferfunction

G(s)= 𝟐𝟎
jω(𝟏+𝟎.𝟏jω)(𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟏jω)

|G(jω)|∠G(jω)= 20
∠−90°−𝑡𝑎𝑛−10.1𝜔−𝑡𝑎𝑛−10.01𝜔
−𝜔2√1+(𝟎.𝟏ω)2√1+(𝟎.𝟎𝟏ω)2

Sl. Factor CornerFre Slope Asymptoticlogmagnitude

No quency
1 20 None -20 Straightlineofslope-
𝑗𝜔 db/decade 20db/decadeandintersectingthe0dBaxisatω=K=
20andextendupto firstcorner frequency10.
2 1 10 20db/decade Drawanetslope(-20)+(-20)=-40db/decade
1 +0.1 𝑗𝜔 fromcornerfrequency10tothenextcornerfrequenc
y100.
3 1 100 -20 Drawthenetslopeof(-40)+(-20)=-
1 +0.01 𝑗𝜔 db/decade 60db/decadefromcornerfrequency100to∞.

Thetableshownbelow showsphaseangleforthe different valueofω.

Fromtheplots
1. Gaincrossoverfrequencyωgc=13.5
2. Phasecrossover frequencyω pc=33
3. ωpc>ωgc, GM&PMare+ve,hencethesystembecomestable.
4. GainMargin = +15db
5.PhaseMargin=180ᵒ-(+124ᵒ)=+56ᵒ

Allpassandminimumphasesystem

If all the poles and zeros of any transfer function lie o the left half of s-plane, such type
oftransfer function is known asminimum phasetransfer function.
Thetransferfunctionhavingapole-zeropatternwhichisantisymmetricabouttheimaginary axis
i.e for every pole in the left half plane, there is a zero in the mirror image position.Thistypeof
transfer function is known asall passtransfer function.
Acommonexampleofsuchtransferfunctionis

G(𝑗𝜔)=1−𝑗𝜔𝑇 (1)
1+𝑗𝜔𝑇

Polezeroconfigurationofequation1isshownbelow:
 Figure1.All passsystem
All passtransferfunctionhasamagnitudeofunityatallfrequencyandaphaseangleof(- 2 tan-1𝜔𝑇)which
varies from 0ᵒ to -180ᵒ as 𝜔increases from 0 to ∞. The property of
unitmagnitudeatallfrequenciesappliestoalltransferfunctionwithantisymmetricpole-
zeropattern.Physical systemswith this propertyarecalled all-pass system.
Now consider the casewhere the transfer function has poles in the left half s-plane andzero
in both left and right half s-plane. Poles are not permitted to lie in the right half s-
planebecausesuch asystem wouldbe unstable. Consider thefollowingtransferfunction
1 −𝑗𝜔 𝑇
G1(jω)= (2)
(1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 1)(1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 2)
Whosepolezero pattern isshownin figure .Thistransferfunctionmayberewrittenas

1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 1−𝑗𝜔𝑇
G1(jω)=[ ][ ]=G2(jω)G(jω) (3)
(1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 1)(1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 2) 1+𝑗𝜔 𝑇
Which is now become the product of two transfer function G 2(jω) i.e minimum phase
transfer function shown in figure (2b) and G(jω) i.e all pass transfer function shown in figure (2c).
It isclear that G1(jω) and G2(jω) have identical curve of magnitude Vs frequency but their phase
Vsfrequency curve are different as shown in figure(3). G 2(jω) having a smaller range of phase
anglethan G1(jω). A transfer function which has one or more zeros and no pole in the right half s-
planeisknown as non-minimum phasetransfer function.
In general if the transfer function has any zeros in the right half s-plane, it is possible
toextractthemonebyonebyassociatingthemwithall-passtransferfunctionasshowninfigure(2a).
A common example of a non-minimum phase element is transportation lag which
hastransfer function

G(𝑗𝜔)= 𝑒−𝑗ωT=1∠−𝜔𝑇rad=

1∠−57.3𝜔𝑇degreeOtherpossiblenon-minimum

transferfunction are:
1. wheremorethanonepossiblesignal pathsareavailablebetweeninputandoutput asin
latticenetwork.
2. Whenthereisinductivecouplingbetweeninputandoutput in additiontoconduction.
 Figure2

Figure3PhaseVsfrequencygraph
 PolarPlots

Polarplotisaplotwhichcanbedrawnbetweenmagnitudeandphase.Itisaplotofmagnitude
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|versusphaseangle∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔)onpolarco-ordinatesasinputfrequency(ω)isvariedfrom0to∞.Here,
themagnitudes are represented bynormal values only.
Thepolarform ofG(jω) is
G(jω)=|G(jω)|∠G(jω)

RulesforDrawingPolarPlots
Followtheserulesforplottingthe polarplots.
Step1.Substitute,s=jωintheopenlooptransferfunction.
Step2.Writetheexpressionsformagnitudeand thephaseofG(jω)
Step3.FindthestartingmagnitudeandthephaseofG(jω)bysubstituting ω=0.So,thepolarplotstartswith
this magnitude and the phaseangle.
Step4.FindtheendingmagnitudeandthephaseofG(jω)bysubstitutingω=∞.So,thepolarplotendswith
thismagnitudeand the phaseangle.
Step5. Check whether thepolarplotintersectstherealaxis,by makingtheimaginary
termofG(jω)equal to zeroand find the value(s) ofω.
Step6.Determinetheintersectionofpolarplot withrealaxisandimaginaryaxis,asfollows:
i. Rationalisethefunction G(jω)andseparatethereal andimaginaryparts.
ii. Intersection with imaginary axis: equate the real term of |G(jω)| to zero and find
thevalue of frequency (ω) at which the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis. Now
putthisvalueofωinto|G(jω)|. Whichgives|G(jω)|atthispoint ofintersection.
iii. Intersection with real axis: equate the imaginary term of |G(jω)| to zero and find
thevalueoffrequency(ω)atwhich thepolarplotintersects the realaxis. Nowput
thisvalueofωinto|G(jω)|.Whichgives|G(jω)|atthispointofintersection.
Step7.By using this information, plot the points on the complex plane. Make the arrow on
theplotforincreasingfrequency from 0 to ∞.

Example1:Considertheopenloop transferfunction ofaclosedloopcontrol system.

1
G(s)=
(1+𝑠𝑇 1)(1+𝑠𝑇 2)

Drawthe polarplot.
Step1−Substitute,s=jωintheopenlooptransfer function.
G(jω)= 1
(1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 1)(1+𝑗𝜔𝑇 2)

Themagnitudeof theopen looptransferfunctionis

1
|G(jω)|=
√1+(𝜔𝑇 1 ) 2√1+(𝜔𝑇 2)
2

Thephaseangleoftheopen looptransfer function is

∠G(jω)=−tan-1𝜔𝑇1−tan-1𝜔𝑇2

Step2−Thefollowingtableshowsthemagnitudeandthephaseangleoftheopenlooptransferfunctionat
ω=0rad/secand ω=∞rad/sec.
Frequency(rad/sec) Magnitude Phaseangle(degrees)

0 1 0

∞ 0 -180ᵒ
So, the polar plot starts at (1,00) and ends at (0,−1800). The first and the second terms within
thebracketsindicate themagnitudeand phaseanglerespectively.
Step3−Thispolarplotwillintersectthenegativeimaginaryaxis.Thephaseanglecorresponding to the
negative imaginary axis is −900 or 2700. So, by equating the phase angle oftheopenloop
transferfunction toeither−900or 2700, wewill get the ωvalueas
∠G(jω)=−tan-1𝜔𝑇1−tan-1𝜔𝑇2=−900

⇒𝜔𝑇1+𝜔𝑇2=∞⇒ 𝜔=
11−𝜔²
𝑇1 𝑇 2 √𝑇 1𝑇 2

Bysubstitutingω=1 inthemagnitudeoftheopenlooptransfer function, wewill get

√𝑇 1𝑇 2
𝑇1𝑇2
|G(jω)|= 1
=√
2 2 𝑇1+𝑇 2
1 1
√1+( 𝑇1)√1+( 𝑇2)
√𝑇1𝑇2 √𝑇1𝑇2

So,wecan drawthepolar plotwith theaboveinformation onthepolar graphsheet.

Thefollowingtableshowspolat plot fordifferenttypeof control system:
 NyquistPlots
Introduction:
Nyquistplotsarethecontinuationofpolarplotsforfindingthestabilityoftheclosedloopcontrol systems
by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw
thecompletefrequencyresponseof theopen loop transferfunction.

Principleofargument
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are
Ppoles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane contour, then the corresponding G(s)H(s)
planemust encircle theoriginP−Ztimes. So,wecanwritethenumberofencirclements N as,
N=P−Z

 Ifthe‘s’planecontourcontainsonlypoles,thenthedirectionoftheencirclementintheq(s)planewi
llbeopposite(counterclockwise) tothedirection of‘s’planecontour.
 Ifthe‘s’planecontourcontainsonlyzeros,thenthedirectionoftheencirclementintheq(s)planewi
ll be in thesame(clock wise)direction as thatof ‘s’planecontour.

For example, in case of 1 zero and 3 poles enclosed by the s- plane contour, the net
encirclementof the origin by the q(s) plane contour is (3-1) two counter-clockwise revolution as
shown infigure below. This relationship between the enclosure of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) b
the s-
planecontourandtheencirclementoftheoriginbyG(s)H(s)contouriscommonlyknownasprincipleofarg
ument.

Nyquiststabilitycriterion

Thecharacteristicsequationofasystemisq(s)=1
+G(s)H(s)
Thestandardpole zero form oftheOLTFG(s)H(s) is

(𝑠+𝑧1)(𝑠+𝑧2)−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧 𝑚)
G(s)H(s)=𝐾 (1)
(𝑠+𝑃1)(𝑠+𝑃2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛)
 (𝑠+𝑧1)(𝑠+𝑧 2)−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝑚)
‫؞‬q(s)=1+𝐾
(𝑠+𝑃1)(𝑠+𝑃2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛)

(𝑠+𝑃1)(𝑠+𝑃2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛)+𝐾(𝑠+𝑧 1)(𝑠+𝑧 2)−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝑚)

=
(𝑠+𝑃1)(𝑠+𝑃2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛)

(𝑠+𝑧𝐹)(𝑠+𝑧𝐹)−−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝐹)
= (𝑠+𝑃1 )(𝑠+𝑃 2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃 𝑛 (2)
1 2 𝑛)
From the above equation it is seen that the zeros of q(s) are the root of the characteristics
equationand the poles q(s) are same as the poles of open loop system. For the system to be stable,
the rootsof the characteristics equation and hence the zeros of q(s) must lie in the left half s-plane.
It isimportant to note that even if some of the open-loop poles lie in the right half s-plane all
thezeros of q(s) i.e, the closed-loop poles may lie in the left half s-plane. It means that an open-
loopunstablesystem maylead to a closed-loop stablesystem.
In order to investigate the presence of any zeroof q(s) in the right half of s-plane, acontour
to be chosenwhich completely encloses the right half of s-plane calledasNyquist contour. It is
directed clockwise and consist of an infinite line segment C1and an arc C2 ofinfiniteredius.

As the Nyquist contour encloses all the right half s-plane poles and zeros of q(s), let there are
‘z’zeros and ‘P’ poles in the right half of s-plane. As s moves along the nyquist contour in the s-
plane, a closed contour Γq is traversed in q(s) plane which encloses the origin N (=P-Z) times
inanticlockwisedirection.
Forthesystem to bestable, thereshould benozeros of q(s) in theright halfof s-planei.e,
Z
=0SoN
=P
The above equation implies that for a close loop system to be stable, the number of counter-
clockwise encirclement of the origin of the q(s) plane by the contour Γ qshould be equal
thenumber of the right half s-plane poles of q(s) which are also the poles of open-loop
transferfunctionG(s)H(s).
Theopen-looptransferfunctioncanbewrittenas
G(s)H(s)=q(s)-1=[1+G(s)H(s)]-1 (3)
Therefore the contour ΓGH of G(s)H(s) corresponding to the nyquist contour in the s-plane is
thesame as contour Γq of q(s) (=1+ G(s)H(s)) drawnfromthe point(-1+j0). Thus the encirclementof
the origin by the contour Γq of q(s) is equivalent to the encirclement of the point (-1+j0) by
thecontourΓGHof G(s)H(s)as shown below.

Statementofnyquist stabilitycriterion:
1. If the contour ΓGH corresponding to the Nyquist contour in the s-plane encircles the point (-
1+j0) in the counter-clockwise direction as many times as the number of right half s-plane
poleofG(s)H(s), theclose loop system is stable.
2. Theclosedloopsystem is stableifthecontourΓGHdoesnotencircles thepoint (-1+j0).

MappingofNyquistcontourintothecontourΓGHofG(s)H(s):
1. Forimaginaryaxis:Put s=jωinG(s)H(s)wheresvariesfrom–j∞to+j∞.

2. Forinfinitesemicircle:puts= 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝜃whereR→∞andθvariesfrom+90ᵒto-90ᵒ.

3. For presenceof poleatorigin:puts=∊𝑒𝑗𝜃where∊→∞andθvariesfrom-90ᵒto+90ᵒ.

4. Forpresenceofpoleatimaginaryaxis:puts=jω1+ ∊𝑒𝑗𝜃where∊→∞andθvariesfrom-90ᵒto
+90ᵒ.

HencethecompletecontourΓGHisthepolarplotofG(jω)H(jω)withvariesfromω -∞to +∞.

NyquiststabilitycriterionappliedtoinversePolarplot:
It is more convenient to work with inverse function 1/ G(jω)H(jω) rather than the direct
functionG(jω)H(jω). Here we will see that the Nyquist stability criterion for direct polar plot can
beextendedforuseto inverse polarplot after minormodification.

Letusconsideraopen-looptransferfunction:
(𝑠+𝑧1)(𝑠+𝑧2)−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧 𝑚)
G(s)H(s)=𝐾 (4)
(𝑠+𝑃1)(𝑠+𝑃2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛)
Forthesystemtobestablenoneoftherootsofthecharacteristicsequationshouldlieintherighthalfs-planeor
onthejω-axis. The characteristicsequation is
(𝑠+𝑧𝐹)(𝑠+𝑧𝐹)−−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝐹)
1 2 𝑛
q(s)=1+G(s)H(s)= (5)
(𝑠+𝑃1)(𝑠+𝑃2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛)
Dividingequation 5by4,weget
𝐹 𝐹
(𝑠+𝑧 )(𝑠+𝑧 )−−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝐹)
1
q’(s)= +1= 1 2 𝑛
(6)
G(s)H(s) (𝑠+𝑧1)(𝑠+𝑧2)−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧 𝑚)
Fromequation5and6itisseenthatthezerosofq’(s)issameastheq(s),whicharetherootsofthecharacteristic
sequation.Itisfurthernoticedthatthepolesofq(s)aresameasthepolesof
G(s)H(s),whilethepolesofq’(s)aresameasthepolesof 1
orthezerosofG(s)H(s).
G(s)H(s)
1
Itcanbeconcludedthatif hasPrighthalfs-planepolesandthecharacteristics
G(s)H(s)
1
equationhasZrighthalfs-planezeros,thelocusof encirclethepoint(-1+j0)Ntimesin
G(s)H(s)
counter-clockwisedirectionwhereN=P-Z.
Sinceforsystemstabilitynozerosofthecharacteristicsequationlocateonrighthalfs-planei.e
,Z=0, theNyquiststabilitycriterion for inversepolarplots canbestated below:

“IttheNyquistplotof 1
correspondingtotheNyquistcontourinthes-plane,encircles
G(s)H(s)
counter-clockwisethe point(-1+j0) asmanytimesasarethenumberofrighthalfs-planepole of
1
,theclosed-loop systemisstable.“
G(s)H(s)

1
Inspecialcasewhere has nopoleintheright halfs-plane,thecloseloop systemis
G(s)H(s)
1
stableprovidedthe netencirclement of (-1+j0)point bytheNyquistplot of iszero.
G(s)H(s)

AssessmentofrelativestabilityusingNyquistcriterion:
The measure of relative stability of a closed-loop systems which are open-loop stable
canbe analysed through the study of Nyquist plots. The stability of such system can be determined
bypolar plot of G(s)H(s). It can be imagined that as the polar plot gets closer to (-1+j0) point,
thesystemtends towards instability.

Consider two different systems whose closed loop poles are shown on the s-plane in
figurea and b respectively. It is seen that system A is more stable than system B because its
closed-looppoles are located comparatively away to the left from jω-axis. The open-loop
frequency response(polar) plots for system A and B are shown in figure ‘c’ and ‘d’, respectively.
The comparison ofthe closed-loop pole location of these twosystem with theircorresponding polar
plot shows thatas a polar plot moves closer to (-1+j0) point, the system closed-loop poles move
closer to the jω-axisand hencethe system becomesrelativelyless stable andviceversa.
The figure as given below shows a G(jω)H(jω) locus which crosses the negative real axis at
afrequency ω=ω2 with an intercept of a. Let a unit circle centred at origin (passes through point -
1+j0) intersect the G(jω)H(jω) locus at a frequency ω=ω 1 and let the phasorG(jω1)H(jω1)
makesan angle of ф with the negative real axis measured positively in counter-clockwise
direction. It isobservedthatasG(jω)H(jω)locusapproaches(-1+j0)point,
therelativestabilityreduces.
ConstantMagnitudeLociorConstantMCircle

Theclosedlooptransferfunctionofaunityfeedbacksystem is givenby

(1)

(2)

(3)
 (4)

𝑀2 𝑀
Equation2represents the equationofacirclewithcentreat[ ,0]havingradiusof
(1−𝑀2) (1−𝑀2)

IfM=1,thenEquation3becomes(1+𝑥)2+𝑦2=𝑥2+𝑦2 orx=−1 (5)

2
1
Itis aequation forstraightlineparallel tothey-axisand passingthrough(− ,0) intheG(jω)
2
plane. For each value of M (except M=1) we get a circle. These circles are known as
ConstantMagnitude Locior ConstantM Circle.
 ConstantPhaseLociorConstantNCircle
Fromequation1

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

Equation10representstheequationofcirclewithitcentreat(−1,1)withradius√11)
2 2𝑁 (4+ 4𝑁2

For different values of N i.e, phase angle θ, equation 10 represents the family of the circles. For
aparticular circle, the value of N i.e, phase angle θ remain constant on it. Therefore these circle
areknownas constant phaseloci orN circles.
 NicholasChart

Constant magnitude loci that are M-circles and constant phase angle loci that are N-circles are
thefundamental components in designing the Nichols chart. The constant M and constant N circles
inG (jω) plane can be used for the analysis and design of control systems. However the constant
Mand constant N circles in gain phase plane are prepared for system design and analysis as
theseplots supply information with fewer manipulations. Gain phase plane is the graph having
gain indecibel along the ordinate (vertical axis) and phase angle along the abscissa (horizontal
axis). TheM and N circles of G (jω) in the gain phase plane are transformed into M and N
contours inrectangular co-ordinates.A point on the constant M loci in G (jω) plane is transferredto
gainphaseplanebydrawingthevectordirectedfromtheoriginofG(jω)planetoaparticularpointon M
circle and then measuring the length in db and angle in degree. Thecritical point in G
(jω), plane corresponds to the point of zero decibel and -180o in the gain phaseplane.Plot ofMand
N circles ingain phaseplaneisknown as Nicholschart/plot.

The Nichols chart is named after the American engineer N.B Nichols who formulated this
plot.CompensatorscanbedesignedusingNicholsplot.Nicholsplottechniqueishoweveralsousedin
designing of dc motor. This is used in signal processing and control design. Nyquistplot
incomplex plane shows how phase of transfer function and frequency variation of magnitude
arerelated. We can find out the gain and phase for a given frequency. Angle of positive real
axisdeterminesthephaseanddistancefromorigin ofcomplexplanedeterminesthegain.
Step-6:Checkforstability:

AsP=0;N=0; HenceZ=0,Systemisstable.
 Therearesome advantagesofNichols’plotincontrolsystem engineering.
 Gainandphasemarginscanbedeterminedeasilyandalsographically.
 Closedloopfrequencyresponseisobtainedfrom openloopfrequencyresponse.
 Thegainof thesystem canbeadjustedto suitable values.
 Nicholschartprovidesfrequencydomainspecifications.

The related Nyquist plot in the complex plane shows how the phase of the transfer function
andfrequency variation of magnitude are related. We can find out the gain and phase for a
givenfrequency.

The angle of the positive real axis determines the phase and the distance from the origin of
thecomplexplanedetermines the gain.