At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1 determine the rules of writing sets and utilize basic symbols;

2 define the notion of subset of a set;

3 introduce the elementary operations on sets;

4 justify the extension of ℕ to ℤ, then to ℚ and to ℝ.

4
At the beginning of this chapter, students should be aware of:

1) the notion of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, and real numbers.

2) basic operations: addition; subtraction; multiplication; and division.

3) simple algebraic notation and ways of solving basic equations.

Sets are used in many fields such as:

1. Data collection: 2. Medicine: 3.Ecology: 4. Education:

In medicine, sets are used In chemistry, sets
Sets allow data to be Ecosystems can be
to classify patients categorize chemical
grouped into distinct analyzed using sets. For
according to their elements (metals, non-
categories. For example, in example, sets can be
symptoms or diseases. metals). In biology, sets
an image recognition AI, defined for forest species,
classify cellular
sets can represent different For example, sets of aquatic species, and
components (nucleus,
classes of objects: animals, patients with diabetes, endangered species.
mitochondria). In
vehicles, landscapes, etc. heart disease, and those
mathematics, sets structure
with a family history.
numbers, points and
solutions of equations.
In the field of telecommunications, devices are often classified according to their technologies.
Consider the set 𝑇 which represents the set of wireless communication technologies.
• We say that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑇 expresses that 𝑎 is a wireless communication technology and we read
"𝒂 belongs to 𝑻."
• Similarly, we express that 𝑏 ∉ 𝑇 means that 𝑏 is not a wireless technology, and we
read "𝒃 does not belong to 𝑻."
1) Fill in the blanks with one of the two symbols (∈ or ∉):
a) Bluetooth … ∈ . ...𝑇.
∉
b) Ethernet cable .......𝑇.
∈
c) Wi-Fi .......𝑇.
∉
d) Fiber optics .......𝑇.
∈
e) 5𝐺 .......𝑇.
2) Complete by writing between the curly brackets everything that can be an element of 𝑇:
𝑇={...................}. 𝑇={Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, 5𝐺}.
Definition 1 A set is a collection of objects. Each of these objects is an element of this set.
Notations • We denote by 𝑎 ∈ 𝐸 the fact that 𝑎 is an element of set 𝐸.
• We denote by 𝑏 ∉ 𝐸 the fact that 𝑏 is not an element of set 𝐸.
Example 1 Let 𝐷={0;1;2;3;4;5;6;7;8;9} be the set of Arabic numerals in the decimal system.
Complete with ∈ or ∉.
∈ 𝐷.
2…

∉
10…𝐷.

∈
4…𝐷.

∉ 𝐷.
$...
Definition 2 A set is said to be finite if its elements can be counted.
Otherwise, it is said to be infinite.
The number of elements of a finite set 𝐸 is called the cardinality of 𝑬, which we
denote by Card (𝑬).

Example 2 • The set of days of the week 𝑆={Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday, Sunday}is a finite set, because it contains exactly 7 elements and
Card (𝑆)=7.
• The set of even numbers 𝐴={0,2,4,6,8,10,…} is an infinite set, because it
includes infinite numbers.
• The set of points on a line or a line segment is infinite.
 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are three libraries where each has a collection of books.
• Library 𝐴 has the following kinds of books: Science, Literature, History, Mathematics and Art.
• Library 𝐵 has the following kinds of books: Literature, Mathematics, History, Art and Science.
• Library 𝐶 has the following kinds of books: Science, Literature, and Art.
1) Complete by writing between the brackets the kinds of books that can be an element of:
a) Library 𝐴, 𝐴={….}. 𝐴={Science, Literature, History, Mathematics, Art}.
b) Library 𝐵, 𝐵={…}. 𝐵={Literature, Mathematics, History, Art, Science}.
c) Library 𝐶, 𝐶={…}. 𝐶={Science, Literature, Art}.
2) Are sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 equal? Justify.
Yes, sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal since they include exactly the same elements (even though the
order is different).
3) Is set 𝐶 equal to set 𝐴? Why?
No, set 𝐶 is not equal to set 𝐴 because it does not include Mathematics and History books.
Definition 3: Two sets (𝑬 and 𝑭) are equal if they contain the same elements, that is, every
element of 𝐸 belongs to 𝐹 and every element of 𝐹 belongs to 𝐸 .
We write 𝐸 = 𝐹 .

Example 3: Let set 𝐴 = {2; 4; 6; 8} and set 𝐵 = {8; 2; 6; 4}.

The two sets contain the same elements. Therefore, 𝐴 = 𝐵.

Example 4: Given the two words "POULE" and "LOUPE“.

If we define 𝐶={P,O,U, L,E} as the set of letters in the word "POULE“,
and 𝐷={L,O,U,P,E} as the set of letters in the word "LOUPE“,
then, we can see: 𝐶 = 𝐷.
Connect the equal sets.

𝐴 = 1,2,8 . 𝐹 = {$, #}.

𝐵 = {281}. 𝐺 = 1,28 .

𝐶 = 28,1 . 𝐻 = 2,8,1 .

𝐷 = #, $ . 𝐼= #.

𝐸= #. 𝐽 = 281 .
A set is often denoted by a capital letter such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐸, 𝐹, ...
Definition 4 Writing a set in roster notation (extension):
To write a finite set in roster notation, we follow these rules:
1. Write the elements between two curly brackets and separate them from each
other with commas or semicolons.
2. The order of the elements does not matter in a set. Changing it does not
modify the set.
3. Each element is written only once in a set defined by roster notation.

Definition 5 Writing a set in set builder notation (comprehension):

A set 𝐸 can also be defined by a property (𝑝) common to its elements.
We then say that 𝐸 is defined in set builder notation and we write it in the form:
𝐸={𝑥 / 𝑥 has the property (𝑝)}.
This is read: "the set of 𝑥 such that 𝑥 has the property (𝑝).
Part 1 : Writing in set builder notation.
The sets below are given in roster notation. Rewrite them in set builder notation.

1) 𝐴={2,4,6,8,10}. 𝐴={𝑥/𝑥 is an even number and 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10}.

2) 𝐵={1,3,5,7,9}. 𝐵={𝑥/𝑥 is an odd number and 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9}.

3) 𝐶={0,3,6,9,12,15}. 𝐶={𝑥/ 𝑥 is a multiple of 3 and 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 15}.

4) 𝐷={5,10,15,20,25}. 𝐷={𝑥/ 𝑥 is a multiple of 5 and 5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 25 }.

5) 𝐸={a,e,i,o,u,y}. 𝐸={𝑥/ 𝑥 is a vowel in the French alphabet}.

Part 2 : Writing in roster notation.
The sets below are given in set builder notation. Rewrite them in roster notation.

1) 𝐹={𝑥/𝑥 is an integer and 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 6}. 𝐹={0,1,2,3,4,5}.

2) 𝐺={𝑥/𝑥 is a multiple of 4 and 4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 20}. 𝐺={4,8,12,16,20}.

3) 𝐻={𝑥/𝑥 is a letter of the word "STAR"}. 𝐻={S,T,A,R}.

4) 𝐼={𝑥/𝑥 is odd number and 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤9}. 𝐼={1,3,5,7,9}.

5) 𝐽={𝑥/𝑥 is a nonzero number divisible by 5 and less than 30}. 𝐽={5,10,15,20,25}.

A set can be represented using a closed domain in which the elements are placed.
This is called a Venn diagram.

Example 5 Let set 𝐴={1;4;6;18}.

The representation of set 𝐴 in Venn diagram is as such:

1
𝐴 4
6

8
Definition 6 An empty set is a set that contains no elements.
We denote it by ∅ or { }.
A singleton is a set that contains one element only.
A pair is a set formed by two distinct elements.

Example 6 • 𝐴={𝑥/ 𝑥 is an odd number less than 5} ={1;3} is a pair.

• 𝐵={𝑥 / 𝑥 is an even prime number}={2} is a singleton.

• 𝐶={𝑥 / 𝑥 is even divisor of 7}= ∅ is an empty set.

Definition 7 A set 𝐴 is a subset of set 𝐵 when every element of 𝐴 belongs to 𝐵.
We then write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and we say that 𝐴 is included in 𝐵 or that 𝐴 is
contained in 𝐵 or that 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵.
We write 𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵 to express that 𝐴 is not a subset of 𝐵.

Remark • Every set 𝐸 is a subset of itself.

• The empty set is a subset of any set.

Property 1 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two subsets of a set 𝐸.

• If 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐶, then 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐶.
• [𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴] if and only if 𝐴 = 𝐵.
Question 1:Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets. Question 3:
In what situation can we say that 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵? If 𝐴={1,2} and 𝐵={1,2,3,4},
a) There exists at least one element of 𝐴 that which statement is correct?
belongs to 𝐵. a) 𝐴 = 𝐵.
b) All elements of 𝐵 belong to 𝐴. b) 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴.
c) All elements of 𝐴 belong to 𝐵. d) 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
c) 𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵.
d) No element of 𝐴 belongs to 𝐵. d) 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
c) All elements of 𝐴 belong to 𝐵.
Question 2: Question 4:
Which of the following sets is not a subset of Which of the following statements is false?
the vowel set V={𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} ? a) Every set is a subset of itself.
a) 𝐴={𝑎, 𝑖, 𝑜}. b) The empty set is a subset of every set.
b) 𝐵={a,e,i,o,u}. c) If 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴, then 𝐴 = 𝐵.
c) 𝐶={a,o,c}. c) 𝐶={𝑎, 𝑜, 𝑐} d) If 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, then 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴.
d) 𝐷={e,u}.
d) If 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, then 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴.
 3
Given the three sets:
𝐸 = 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 .
𝐴 = 1,2,3,4 .
𝐵 = 0,2,4,8,6 .
1) Write in roster notation the set 𝐼 of elements that are found in both 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝐼 = {2,4} I is the intersection of 𝐴 and 𝐵 and 𝐼 is denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.

2) Write in roster notation the set U of elements that are found in A or in B.

𝑈 = {1,2,3,4,0,6,8} U is the union of A and B and U is denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

3) Write in roster notation the set C of elements which are found in E and are not found in A.

𝐶 = {0,5,6,7,8} ഥ.
C is the complement of A in E and it is denoted by A
 Definition 8 Definition 9 Definition 10
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets.
The set of elements that Let 𝐴 be a subset of 𝐸. The
The set of elements that
belong to both 𝐴 and 𝐵 is set of elements of 𝐸 that
belong to 𝐴 or to 𝐵 (or to
called the intersection of 𝑨 do not belong to 𝐴 is called
both) is called the union of
and 𝑩 and is denoted by the complement of 𝑨 in 𝑬
𝑨 and 𝑩 and is denoted by ഥ.
𝑨 ∩ 𝑩. and is denoted by 𝐀
𝑨 ∪ 𝑩.

The blue part represents The blue part represents The blue part represents
set 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵. set 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 . set 𝐴.ҧ
Property 2 Let 𝐴 be a subset of a set 𝐸.

• 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴ҧ = 𝐸 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴ҧ = ∅.

ഥ = ∅.
• E
𝑬

A ഥ
𝑨
Consider set E= a, b, c, 2,4,5,6,8 and its subsets A= a, 2, 4 and B= a, b, c, 2,6 .

Write the following sets in roster notation:

1) A ∩ B. A ∩ B = {a, 2}.
2) A ∪ B. A ∪ B = {a, 2,4, b, c, 6}.
ഥ: the complement of 𝐴 in 𝐸.
3) A ഥ = b, c, 5, 6,8 .
A
ഥ: the complement of 𝐵 in 𝐸.
4) B ഥ = {4,5,8}.
B
ഥ
ഥ ∩ A.
5) B ഥ∩A
B ഥ = {5,8}.

6) B ഥ.
ഥ∪A ഥ = b, c, 5,6,8,4 .
ഥ∪A
B
7) A ∪ B. A ∪ B = 5,8 .
8) A ∩ B. A ∩ B = b, c, 5,6,8,4 .
Definition 11 The subsets of set 𝐸 form a set called the set of subsets of 𝑬.
The set of subsets of 𝐸 is denoted by 𝑷(𝑬).
If set 𝐸 has n elements, set 𝑃(𝐸) has 2n elements: Card(𝑃(𝐸))=2n .

Example 7 Consider set 𝐸={0,1,2}.

The set 𝑃(𝐸) has 23 =8 elements .
𝑃(𝐸) ={∅,{0},{1},{2},{0,1},{0,2},{1,2},{0,1,2}}.

Example 8 Consider set 𝐴 = 1,2,3,4 .

The set 𝑃(𝐴) has 24 =16 elements .
𝑃(𝐴)={∅,{1},{2},{3},{4},{1,2},{1,3},{1,4},{2,3},{2,4},{3,4},{1,2,3},{1,2,4},
{1,3,4},{2,3,4},{1,2,3,4}}.
Given the three sets 𝐸 = a; b , 𝐴 = a;∗; 4 , and 𝐵 = ∅.

Write the following sets in roster notation, and determine the cardinal of each set.
1) The set of subsets of 𝐸: 𝑃(𝐸).
2) The set of subsets of 𝐴: 𝑃(𝐴).
3) The set of subsets of 𝐵: 𝑃(𝐵).

1) 𝑃(𝐸) = {∅, a , b , {a, b}}. Card (P(E))=22 = 4.

2) 𝑃(𝐴) = {∅, a , ∗ , 4 , a,∗ , a, 4 , 4,∗ , {a,∗, 4}}. Card (P(A))=23 = 8.

3) 𝑃(𝐵) ={∅}. Card P(B))= 20 = 1.

Definition 12 Natural and Whole Numbers
The natural numbers are the numbers 1,2,3,4,…and so on.
The whole numbers are the natural numbers and zero.
The set of whole numbers is denoted by ℕ.
ℕ={0,1,2,3,…}.The set ℕ deprived of 0 is denoted by ℕ *={1,2,3,…}.
Integers
The set of integers contains all whole numbers and their opposites.
The set of integers is denoted by ℤ.
ℤ={ …,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…}.
The set ℤ deprived of 0 is denoted by ℤ* .
Rational Numbers
The set of rational numbers contains all numbers that can be written as the quotient
of two integers with a non-zero denominator.
This set is denoted by ℚ.
The set deprived of 0 is denoted by ℚ* .
 Real Numbers
Each rational number can be matched to exactly one point on the number line. There are
many points on the number line where there are no rational numbers. (Example: the
point whose abscissa is equal to the length of the diagonal of a square of side one
unit).These points correspond to the nonrational numbers.
Every point on the number line is associated with either a rational or nonrational
number. Combined together, these numbers form the set of real numbers which is
denoted by ℝ.
Irrational Numbers
A real number that is not rational is an irrational number
denoted by ℚഥ

Property 3 ℕ ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ ⊂ ℝ.
Example 9
• 10452 ∈ ℤ • 0∈ℚ 1
• 0∈ℕ • {2;-2;5;0,5; }⊂ ℚ
6

• −2 ∈ ℤ 1
• 10452 ∈ ℕ • ∈ℚ • 𝜋∉ℚ
7

• −2 ∉ ℕ • 0,5 ∉ ℤ ഥ
• −2 ∈ ℚ • 0∉ℚ
• 0 ∉ ℕ∗ • 0 ∉ ℤ∗
• 2 ∉ℚ 1
ഥ
• ∉ℚ
7
• 0; 45 ⊂ ℕ • ℕ⊂ℤ
• 0 ∉ ℚ∗
ഥ
• π∈ℚ
• {2;-2}⊄ ℕ • {2;-2 }⊂ ℤ
• ℕ⊂ℤ⊂ℚ
• ഥ
2∈ℚ
• 0∈ℤ 1
• ∉ℤ
3
100 students of the first secondary class were asked about Class
the subject they like. The results were as follows: Mathematics
Arabic
• 35 like Arabic.
32
---
• 50 like Mathematics. 7
---
20
• 29 like Chemistry. ---
• 12 like Arabic and Mathematics. 6
---
5
3
---
• 8 like Arabic and Chemistry.
12
• 6 like Chemistry and Mathematics but not Arabic. 15
--- ---

• 5 like all three subjects.

Chemistry
1) Complete the following Venn diagram.
2) How many students like Arabic only? 𝟐𝟎 students
3) How many students like only one subject? 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟔𝟕; 67 students
4) How many students don't like any of the three subjects?𝟏𝟐 students
 SET
Operations with
is a collection of Types Relations
Representation Sets
objects: elements .

𝐴⊂𝐸
Writing in roster Finite: Infinite: 𝐴∪𝐵 =
a is an element of a notation contains a {x/x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
contains 𝐴⊄𝐸
set E: a ∈ 𝐸. finite number infinite
a is not an element of Writing in set of elements elements
a set E: a ∉ 𝐸. builder notation 𝐴=𝐵 𝐴∩𝐵 =
Empty ∅ ℕ
{x/x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
If A ⊂ B
ℤ and B ⊂ C,
Venn Diagram Singleton
then A ⊂ C. 𝐴ҧ =
ℚ {x/x ∈ E and x ∉ A}.
P(A): sets of
Pair subsets of A.
ℝ If Card (A) = n,
then
Card P(A) = 2n .
D D
DD D
•
•