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OCN
Optical Networks

•Definition: An Optical Network is basically a

communication network used for the exchange
of information through an optical fiber
cable between one end to another. It is one of the
quickest networks used for data communication.
 Basics Of Networks
Station : Stations in an optical network serves as the source and destination of the
information being transmitted and received.
Examples: computers, terminals, telephones or other equipment
for communicating.
Network:
The pattern of contacts or flow of information between the stations is called
a network.
Node:
Node is nothing but acts as a hub for multiple transmission lines inside the network. In
case of a single transmission line, an optical network does not require nodes, as in this
case stations at both the ends can be directly connected to the fiber cables.
Trunk: A trunk is basically a transmission line i.e., optical fiber cable in order to transmit
the optical signal.
Topology:
When multiple fiber cables are employed in an optical network, then
these are connected through nodes. But the way in which the
multiple nodes are connected together denotes the topology of the
network.
Router : A router is basically placed inside an optical network that provides a
suitable path for signal transmission.
Networks classification:
LANs :
LANs means Local area networks. It is a interconnect users in a localized area such
as a department, a building, an office or factory complex, or a university campus .
MANs :
MANs means Metropolitan area networks. which provides user
connection with in a city or in the metropolitan area surrounding a city.
WANs :
WANs means wide area network. it covers a large geographical area
ranging from connection between near by cities to connection of users across a
country.
Network Topologies :
❖ The popular protocol used in optical LANs is the Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI).

❖ SONET and SDH are two protocols which are widely used on a ring
network with active nodes in MANs and WANs.
• Bus Topology: In a bus topology, the various nodes are connected
through a single trunk line with the help of optical couplers. This allows
a convenient as well as a cost-effective method to transmit the signal.
However, in a bus topology, it is difficult to determine the faulted node
as well as it also takes time to restore the transmitted signal from that
particular node.
• Ring Topology: In a ring topology, one single node is joined to its
neighbouring node thereby forming a closed path. So, the transmitted
information in the form of light is sent from one node to another.
• Star Topology: In star connection, the various nodes of the network are
connected together with a single central hub. This central hub can be
active or passive network. This central hub then controls and directs the
transmitted optical signal inside the optical network.
• Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, an arbitrary connection is formed
between the nodes in the network. This point to point connection can
Basically, in mesh connection, failure of any link or node is generated
then firstly that particular failure is detected and then the signal traffic is
diverted from failed node to another link inside the connection. be
changed according to the application.
Broadcast-and-Select Network
Broadcast-and-select networks are based on a passive star coupler
device connected to several stations in a star topology.
Broadcast-and-Select WDM Network
All-optical WDM networks have full potential of optical transmission capacity and
versatility of communication networks beyond SONET architectures.
∙ These networks can be classified as
(1) Broadcast-and-select techniques
(2) Wavelength-routing networks.
∙Broadcast-and select techniques employing passive optical stars, buses and
wavelength routers are used for local networks can be classified as
(1) Single-hop networks
(2) Multi-hop networks
∙Single hop refers to network where information transmitted in the form of light
reaches its destination without being converted to an electrical form at any
intermediate point. In a multi hop network, intermediate electro-optical conversion
can occurred.
Broadcast and Select Signal Hop Network
• Two alternate physical architectures for a WDM-based local network have n sets
of transmitters and receivers are attached to either a star coupler or a passive bus.
Each transmitter sends its information at a fixed wavelength.
• All the transmissions from the various nodes are combined in a pasive star. Coupler
or coupled onto a bus and sent out to all receivers.

• An interesting point to note is that the WDM setup is protocol transparent.

Protocol transparent means that different sets of communicating nodes can use
different
information exchange rules (protocols) without affecting the other nodes in the network.
∙Thearchitectures of single-hop broadcast-and-selectnetworks are fairly simple,

there needs to be careful dynamic coordination between the nodes.

∙ A transmitter sends its selective filter to that wavelength.

∙Two sending stations need to coordinate their transmission so the collisions of information
streams at the some wavelength do not occur.
Broadcast and Select Multi hop Network
Drawback of single-hop networks is the need for rapidly unable lasers or receiver optical fibers.

∙ This drawback can be overcome by the designs of multi hop networks.

∙ Multihop networks do not have direct paths between each node pair.
∙ Each node has a small number of fixed tuned optical transmitter and receivers.

An example, a four node broadcast and select multi hop network where
each node transmits on one set of two fixed wavelengths and receives on another
set of two fixed wavelengths.
∙Information destined for other nodes will have to be routed through intermediate
stations.
∙Considering the operation, a simplified transmission scheme in which message
are sent as packets with a data field and an address header containing source and
destination identifiers (i.e,. routing information) with control bits.
 At intermediate node, the optical signal is converted to an
electrical format.
∙The address header is decoded to examine the routing information
field, which will indicate where the packet should go.
∙Routing information is used to send the electronic packets from
optical transmitter to the next node in the logical path toward its
final destination.
∙ Advantage: There are no destination conflicts or packet
c o l li s ionSesl in Mthuel nheotwoetrwk.
ad c as t a n
∙For H hops between nodes, there is a network throughput penalty
of at least 1/H.
The Shuffle Net Multihop Network
various topologies for multi hop light wave networks are
(1) The shuffle net graph
(2) The de Bruijin graph
(3) He toroidal Manhattan street network
·A scheme called the perfect shuffle is widely used to form processor

interconnect patterns in multiprocessors.

·For optical networks, the logical configuration consists of a cylindrical

arrangement of k column, each having p nodes. Where P is the number of fixed

transceiver pairs per node.

The total number of nodes is then

a (p,k)=(2,2) shuffle net, where the (k+1)th column represents the
completion of a trip around the cylinder back to the first column.
∙Performance parameter for the shuffle net is the average number of hops
between any randomly chosen nodes.
∙Since, all nodes have p output wavelength, p nodes can be reached from
any node in one hop, p2 additional nodes can be reached in two hope, until
all the (pk-1) other nodes are visited.

∙ The maximum number of hops is

Consider figure above, the connections between nodes 1 and 5 and nodes 1 and 7. In
first case, the hop number is one.

∙ In second case three hops are needed with routes 1- 6 – 7 or 1 – 5 – 2 -7.?

∙ The average of hops Bar H of a shuffle net is
 In multi hopping, part of the capacity of a particular link directly connecting two nodes is
actually utilized for carrying between them.

∙ The rest of the link capacity is used to forward messages from other nodes.
∙ The system has Np=kpK+1 links, the total network capacity C is

The per-user throughput δ is

Different (p,k) combination result in different throughputs, to get a better network

performance.
•
Wavelength Routed Networks
Two problems arise in broadcast and select networks,
∙ More wavelengths are needs as the number of nodes in the network grows.
∙Without the widespread are use of optical booster amplifier, due to this splitting losses
is high.

∙Wavelength routed networks overcome these limitations through wavelength reuse,

wavelength conversion, and optical switching.
∙The physical topology of a wavelength routed network consists of optical wavelength
routers interconnected by pair of point-to-point fiber link in an arbitrary mesh
configuration.
Each link can carry a certain number off wavelength which can be directed
independently to differently output paths at a node.
∙Each node may have logical connections with several other

nodes in the network, where each connection uses a particular wavelength.

∙The paths taken by any two connections do not overlap, they can use the same

wavelength.
Link power budget
Link power budget
• Link Power Budget For optimum link power budget an optical power loss model is to be studied as
shown in Fig Let lc denotes the losses occur at connector. Lsp denotes the losses occur at splices.
αf denotes the losses occur in fiber.

• All the losses from source to detector comprises the total loss(PT) in the system. Link power
margin considers the losses due to component aging and temperature fluctuations. Usually a link
margin of 6-8 dB is considered while estimating link power budget.

• Total optical loss = Connector loss+(Splicing loss+ Fiber attenuation)+System margin(Pm)

PT=2lc+αfL+ System margin(Pm) where, L is transmission distance.
Rise time budget
• Rise Time Budget: The system design must also take into account the temporal response of the
system components. The total loss LT (given in the power budget section) is determined in the
absence of the any pulse broadening due to dispersion. Finite bandwidth of the system
(transmitter, channel, receiver) may results in pulse spreading (i.e. inter symbol interference),
giving a reduction in the receiver sensitivity. I.e. worsening of BER or SNR The additional loss
penalty is known as dispersion equalization or ISI penalty.
Optical CDMA
The simplest configuration , CDMA achieves multiple access by assigning a
unique code to each user.
▪ To communicate with another node, user imprint their agreed upon code onto the data. The

receiver can then decode the bit stream by locking onto the code sequence.

▪ The principle of optical CDMA is based on spread-spectrum techniques.

▪ The concept is to spread the energy of the optical signal over a frequency band that is
much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to send the information.
▪ Spreading is done by a code that is independent of the signal itself.

▪ On optical encoder is used to map each bit of information into the high-rate (longer-

code-length) optical sequence. The symbols is the spreading code are called chips.
▪ The energy density of the transmitted waveform is distributed more or less uniformly

over the entire spread-spectrum bandwidth.

▪ The set of optical sequences becomes a set of unique ‘address codes or signature

sequences’ the individual network users.

▪ The signature sequence contains six chips. When the data signal contains 1 data bit, the
six-chip sequence is transmitted, no chips are sent for a 0 data bit.
▪ Time-domainoptical CDMA allows a number of users to access a
network simultaneously, through the use of a common wavelength.
▪ Both asynchronous and synchronous optical CDMA techniques. In synchronous
accessing schemes follow rigorous transmission schedules, the produce more

successful transmission (higher throughputs) than asynchronous methods where

network access is random and collisions between users can occurs.

▪ An optical CDMA network is based on the use of a coded sequence of pulses.

▪ The setup consists of N transmitter and receiver pairs interconnected in a star

Basics of
EDFA
The key feature of EDFA technology is the Erbium Doped Fiber (EDF),
which is a conventional silica fiber doped with erbium. Basically, EDFA consists of a
length of EDF, a pump laser, and a WDM combiner. The WDM combiner is for
combining the signal and pump wavelength so that they can propagate
simultaneously through the EDF. EDFAs can be designed that pump energy
propagates in the same direction as the signal (forward pumping), the opposite
direction to the signal (backward pumping), or both direction together. The pump
energy may either by 980nm pump energy or 1480nm pump energy, or a
combination of both. The most common configuration is the forward pumping
configuration using 980nm pump energy. Because this configuration takes
advantage of the 980nm semiconductor pump laser diodes, which feature effective
cost, reliability and low power consumption. Thus providing the best overall design
in regard to performance and cost trade-offs.
Why EDFA Is Essential to WDM Systems?
We know that when transmitting over a long distance, the signal
is highly attenuated. Therefore it is essential to implement an optical signal
amplification to restore the optical power budget. This is what EDFA commonly
used for: it is designed to directly amplify an input optical signal, which hence
eliminates the need to first transform it to an electronic signal. It simply can
amplify all WDM channels together. Nowadays, EDFA rises as a preferable
option for signal amplification method for WDM systems, owing to its low-noise
and insensitive to signal polarization. Besides, EDFA deployment is relatively
easier to realize compared with other signal amplification methods.
Channel WDM System With or Without EDFA:
What Is the Difference?
Two basic configurations of WDM systems come in two forms: WDM
system with or without EDFA. Let’s first see the configuration of a WDM system
without using it. At the transmitter end, channels are combined in an optical
combiner. And these combined multiple channels are transmitted over a single fiber.
Then splitters are used to split the signal into two parts, one passes through the
optical spectrum analyzer for signal’s analysis. And other passes through the
photodetector to convert the optical signal into electrical. Then filter and electrical
scope are used to observe the characteristics of a signal. In this configuration signals
at a long distance get attenuated. While this problem can be overcome by using
erbium-doped fiber amplifier.
As for WDM system which uses EDFA, things are a little bit different.
Although the configuration is almost the same as a WDM system without it,
some additional components are used. These components are EDFAs which
are used as a booster and pre-amplifier, and another additional component
is an optical filter. With the adoption of an optical amplifier, this system
doesn’t suffer from losses and attenuation. Hence, it is possible to build
broadband WDM EDFAs which offer flat gain over a large dynamic gain
range, low noise, high saturation output power and stable operation with
excellent transient suppression. The combination provides

reliable performance and relatively low cost, which makes EDFAs preferable
in most applications of modern optical networks.
 Among the various technologies available for optical amplifiers, EDFA
technology proves to be the most advanced one that holds the dominant position in

the market. In the future, the WDM system integrated with high-performance

EDFA, as well as the demand for more bandwidth at lower costs have made optical

networking an attractive solution for advanced networks.

Performance of WDM+EFDA
An optical network that involves WDM (wavelength division
multiplexing) currently gains in much popularity in existing telecom infrastructure.
Which is expected to play a significant role in next-generation networks to support
various services with a very different requirement. WDM technology, together with
EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier), allowing the transmission of multiple
channels over the same fiber, that makes it possible to transmit many terabits of data
over distances from a few hundred kilometers to transoceanic distances, which
satisfy the data capacity required for current and future communication networks.
This article explains how can WDM system benefit from this technology.
▪ To send information from node j to node k, the address code for node k is
impressed upon the data by the encoder at node j.
▪ At the destination, the receiver differentiates between codes by means of
correlation detection.
▪ Each receiver correlates its own address f(n) with the received signal s(n). The
receiver output r(n) is
If the received signal arrives at the correct destination, then s(n)=f(n).

Equation (5.57) represents an autocorrelation function, if s(n)not f(n) the

equal to
equation (5.57) represents a cross-correlation function.
For a receiverto be able to distinguish the proper address correctly, it is
necessary to
maximize the autocorrelation function and minimize the cross-correlation function.

Prime-sequence codes and optical orthogonal codes (OOCs) are the commonly
used spreading sequences in optical CDMA systems.

An OOC systems the number of simultaneous user an is bounded by

ULTRA HIGH CAPACITY NETWORKS
Advance of optical communication systems has provide
channels with enormous bandwidth at least 25THz and dense WDM technology,
ultrafast optical TDM.
To using dense WDM techniques to increase the capacity of long-haul
transmission link and ultrafast optical TDM schemes.
These are particularly attractive in LAN or MANs

TDM Schemes To Shared-Media Local Neteorks Have Two Methods:

(1) Bit-interleaved TDM.
(2) Time-slotted TDM.
 1. Ultra High Capacity WDM Networks
Two popular approaches are used to achieve increased capacity.
(a) to widen the spectral bandwidth of EDFAs from 30 to 80 nm, by using
broadening techniques.
(b) Increasing the capacity of a WDM link is to improve the spectral efficiency of
the WDM signals.
Most of the demonstrations use a rate of 20 Gb/s for each individual wavelength to

avoid non-linear effects.

Examples are,
(1) A 50-channel WDM system operating at an aggregated 1-Tb/s rate over a 600 km link.
(2)A 132-channel WDM system operating at an aggregated 2.6 Tb/s rate over a 120- km/link.
2. Bit-Interleaved Optical TDM
TDM
▪ Repetition rate typically ranges from 2.5 to 10 Gb/S, which corresponds to the
bit rate of the electric data tributaries feeding the system.
▪ An optical splitter divides the pulse train into N separate streams.
▪ The pulse streams is 10 Gb/S and N=4, each of these channels is then
individually modulated by an electrical tributary data source at a bit rate
B.
▪ The modulated outputs are delayed individually by different fractions of the
clock period, and are then interleaved through an optical combiner to produce
an aggregate bitrate of NXB.
▪ Optical post amplifier and preamplifier are generally included in the link
to compenstate for splitting and attenuation loss.
▪ At the receiving end, the aggregate pulse stream is demultiplexed into the
original N independent data channels for further signal processing.
▪ A clock-recovery mechanism operating at the base bit rate B is required at
the receiver to drive and synchronize the demultiplexer.