`

Kurdistan Region
Salahaddin University- Erbil
College of engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Influence of construction method on tunnel

lining design

A Project Submitted to the Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Salahaddin-Erbil
in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science
in Civil Engineering

Prepared by:
Bahra Muhsin Sabir

Supervisor:
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ahmad Mohammad Hasan

2023-2024

1
`

Abstract

Tunnels were built throughout the stone-age, since 2180 B.C. They have became
common worldwide as structures for transport, defense, mining, conveyance,
storage, and flood control. The construction of underground tunnel structures is
preferred because of the increasing world population, urbanization and
industrialization, as they limit interference with existing surfaces. Though
underground tunnels are a common flexible alternative to construction, they are
structures of high risk. The effectiveness of the ground-support interaction depends
on the geology, material properties, geotechnical parameters, surrounding ground
mass loads. This project would then explore the influence of construction method
including New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) and Cut-and-Cover Tunnel
(CCT) method on shallow and deep tunnel lining design. The software which used
for analyzing and designing the tunnel is PLAXIS 2D. It could help a lot for every
detailing of designing and giving accuracy property for the soil, borehole and
concrete lining. The tunnel was surrounded by a uniform and homogenous clay soil.
The behavior of the soil predicted using soil hardening elastoplastic model. The
numerical simulation of the influence of the construction methods on shallow and
deep tunnel lining design and as well as the influence of tunnel arching, have been
performed. It has been shown that, in deep tunnel, the values of the shear force,
bending moments and lining deflection of the tunnel for NATM were notibly lower
than that in cut-and-cover method. This was also true for the shallow tunnel. In
NATM, it was noted that the arching has a great influence in reduction of the values
of the shear force, bending moments and lining deflection.

2
`

Dedicated to :

My parents who have learned me the way of live, brothers, sisters, My supervisor
Dr.Ahmad Mohammad Hasan with all other teachers, and My dear friends that help
me in preparing this project , and those who want to learn.

3
`

Certificate

I certify that the Engineering Project entitled "Influence of construction method

on tunnel lining design” was performed under my supervision at the Civil
Engineering Department, College of Engineering-Salahaddin University-Erbil, in
the partial fulfillment of The Requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Civil Engineering.

Supervisor

Signature:

Name : Assist Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mohammed Hasan

Date:

4
`

List of content

Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................2

Dedicated to : .............................................................................................................3

Certificate ...................................................................................................................4

Contents......................................................................................................................5

Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................8

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................8

1.1Background ...........................................................................................................8

1.2 Importance of the subject .....................................................................................9

1.3 Tunnel Terminology ..........................................................................................10

1.4 History ................................................................................................................11

1.5 Tunnel construction ...........................................................................................12

1.5.1 TBM .............................................................................................................12

Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................13

2. Litarature Riview .................................................................................................13

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................13

2.2 NATM (new austrain tunneling method)...........................................................14

2.3 Types of Tunnel .................................................................................................16

2.3.1 Based on consruction material .................................................................17

2.3.1.1 Hard ground tunnel ..............................................................................17

5
`

2.3.1.2. Soft grounf tunnel .................................................................................17

2.3.2 Based on cross section shape .......................................................................18

2.4 shallow and deep tunnel .....................................................................................21

2.5 shear force of tunnel...........................................................................................22

2.6 Basic idea of support ..........................................................................................23

Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................25

3. Methodolgy ..........................................................................................................25

3.1 Method of Designing .........................................................................................25

1. Soil borehole ......................................................................................................26

2. Soil Bed ...............................................................................................................27

3. Defining concrete lining .....................................................................................28

4. Shape of tunnel.....................................................................................................29

5. Mesh ....................................................................................................................30

6. Calculation ...........................................................................................................32

Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................33

4. Results and Discussions .......................................................................................33

4.1 Method of excavation: ....................................................................................33

4.2 Shear force on the deep tunnel concrete lining...............................................34

4.3 Bending momnets on the deep tunnel concrete lining ....................................35

4.4 Defelections in the tunnel concrete lining ......................................................36

4.4.1 Deflections of tunnel under Shallow conditions .....................................36

4.4.2 Deflections of the tunnel under deep conditions ......................................38

6
`

4.5 Influences of arching in NATM .....................................................................40

4.6 SF, BM and DF comparison between CCT and NATM ...............................41

Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................42

5. Conclusion and Recommendations ......................................................................42

5.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................42

5.2 Recommendations ...........................................................................................43

REFRENCES ...........................................................................................................44

7
`

Chapter 1
1. Introduction

1.1Background

The design and construction of tunnels and underground infrastructure is now clearly
emerging across the globe as the key to sustainable development as nations wrestle
with the demand of growing and increasingly urbanized populations. Based on
United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-HABITAT) report, a continuing
trend of urbanization can be observed worldwide. Although half the world's
population was still living in cities in 2008, rapid urbanization is not letting go; three
million people are adding per week to cities in the developing world. A 70 per cent
urbanization pace is projected for the year 2050 (Afradi et al , 2018). Continued
urbanization must be paired with climate change, oil and electricity transfer,
resource supply and demand, trade, road and urban development, rail and industrial
railway development, water conveyance tunneling, and other developments related
to substantial infrastructures that affect urban life, and which pose challenges to
cities worldwide and consequentially, they affect economic growth and attracting
foreign investment process (Arshad, et al 2016).

8
`

1.2 Importance of the subject

Tunnels are used for a wide variety of purposes. They provide essential links in many
highways, railroads, and urban rapid transit systems. Urban water supply and
distribution, sewage collection and disposal, hydroelectric power generation, flood
control, and mining require extensive tunneling. Tunneling is often used in virtual
private networks (VPNs). It can also set up efficient and secure connections between
networks, enable the usage of unsupported network protocols, and in some cases
allow users to bypass firewalls.Tunnels provide safe, environmentally sound, fast,
and unobtrusive urban mass transit systems. City traffic tunnels clear vehicles from
surface streets, traffic noise is reduced, air becomes less polluted and the surface
street areas may partially be used for other purposes. For example construction of
tunnel along road network of Kurdistan region with a length of more than 72 km
must be conducted (Cao, et al. (2018)). In addition, the construction of railways,
sewage delivery networks, subways, water distribution tunnels and water
connectivity to rural areas, disguise and powerhouse caverns and so on in the
Kurdistan region will be important issues in the near future. Also, based on key role
of natural resource (e.g. oil, gas and mineral deposit) in economic development
(Chapman et al., 2010)).

9
`

1.3 Tunnel Terminology

Unlike all other civil infrastructure structures, tunnels arethe construction materials
have specified and testable properties in buildings or bridges, although this is not the
case in tunneling. Despite the fact that a tunnel structure often includes concrete and
steel support structures, it is the earth that is the main part of the construction, and
that may play both a supporting and a loading function.

Some useful terminology related to a tunnel cross section as shown in Figure 1.

Crown: The most noteworthy point of the inner curved surface of a tunnel cross
segment .

Invert: The bottom surface of a tunnel.

Tunnel lining: Permanent or temporary cover to the rock or soil surface at the
periphery of a tunnel excavation.

Heading: The top section of an organized mined tunnel excavation, regularly

excavated to begin with, followed behind by the bench and invert.

Bench: It is in situ ground at the lower confort of a tunnel undergoing organized

excavation .

Figure 1 parts of cross section of tunnel

10
`

1.4 History
Humans have been bound to the underground for thousands of years for numerous
reasons, among others, for fundamental survival, aesthetic expression, and religious
ceremonies. Humans lived in caves before the Stone Age (as proven by discovered
cave paintings). Stone Age men built, excavated, and extended tunneling systems
more than 12,000 years ago, of which a few parts still exist (Zhang et al., 2020). All
major antiquated civilizations developed tunneling methods. In Babylonia, tunnels
were utilized extensively for irrigation. The Egyptians developed techniques for
cutting soft rocks with copper saws and hollow reed drills, all of which were used
widely by the Greeks and Romans to restore marshes by irrigation and for water
aqueducts (Daraei et al., 2019). Tunnel construction for transportation has expanded
in recent years. Since advances in the tunneling industry have made it easier to
construct longer tunnels and over more difficult terrain, this is also in part. The
growing require for more developed transportation infrastructures has too
contributed to this increase. Many tunneling projects are subsequently still underway
nowadays or are still being arranged.The first tunnel shown in Figure 2 built whose
engineer is known was excavated in the island of Samos. The engineer Eupalinos de
Megara, built this tunnel in the 530 b.C to supply with water the capital of the island
and was, with its 1 km length, considered as one of the three marvels of the helenic
world (Herki et al., 2018).

Eupalinos tunnel History of urban_underground tunnel

Figure 2 history of tunnel

11
`

1.5 Tunnel construction

Usually, two specific techniques are employed to advance a tunnel. First one is the
full-face process, they simultaneously excavate the whole tunnel diameter. It is
suitable for tunnels that move into solid earth, or for building smaller tunnels. The
second technique is the method of top-heading and bench. Workers dig a tinier
tunnel known as a heading in this technique (Daraei et al., 2019). When the top
heading has gone a little deeper into the rock, the staff start digging immediately
below the top heading floor, this is a bench. One benefit of the top-heading and
bench approach is that engineers can use the heading tunnel to gauge the rock's
stability before continuing with the project (Evelyn, 2017).

1.5.1 TBM

A TBM (Tunnel boring machine) is a high- tech machine that usually consists of a
cutter head, gripper, shield, thrust cylinder, conveyor and rock reinforcing machine
and it excavates by applying enormous rotating and crushing pressure on the rock
face. Chop it with several disc cutters fixed on the cutter head (Mohammed, 2015).
Cutters are replaced by variations in rock hardness, strength, joints, strain and
abrasive material properties to minimize efficient energy breakage (Blake, 1989).
Cutters with grinding capabilities are ideal for very hard, clean rocks. Cutters with
smaller teeth are ideal for cutting the rock in hard rocks (Evelyn, 2017). TBM is used
for tunnel excavation with a cross-section of circular .Tunnel diameters excavated
using the TBMs can vary from 1 m to nearly 16 m to date (Arshad at el., 2016). Two
main types of TBMs exist in soft ground: Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPB)
and Slurry Shield (SS).TBMs excavate rock using the cutting head fixed on the disc
cutting.

12
`

Chapter 2
2. Litarature Riview

2.1 Introduction
Generally, tunneling, the stability of tunnels and the designing process of appropriate
support systems for them have been of great importance in mining and construction
projects since a long time ago. This chapter focuses on the work and studies of other
people who have studied on tunneling and tunnel support system. In the past years,
investigation and study of tunnel support have been very critical. There are a number
of recently research and projects on tunneling, each projects addresses a different
components of method and design for tunneling and tunnel support. Although each
of these studies had its own objectives, for the purpose of this literature review, they
are placed in various categories: Many researches and experimental studies of
tunneling have been done on a various types of materials, in some cases excavation
methods with a different dosage has been used to achieve desired properties,
otherwise cross section shape and tunnel construction methods have been addressed.
The main goal of all this studies is design of tunnel support system which is suited
for civil engineer to keep the tunnel stable and to make the opening usable.1
Introduction Generally, tunneling, the stability of tunnels and the designing process
of appropriate support systems for them have been of great importance in mining
and construction projects since a long time ago. This chapter focuses on the work
and studies of other people who have studied on tunneling and tunnel support
system. In the past years, investigation and study of tunnel support have been very
critical. There are a number of recently research and projects on tunneling, each
projects addresses a different components of method and design for tunneling and
tunnel support. Although each of these studies had its own objectives, for the
purpose of this literature review, they are placed in various categories: Many

13
`

researches and experimental studies of tunneling have been done on a various types
of materials, in some cases excavation methods with a different dosage has been
used to achieve desired properties, otherwise cross section shape and tunnel
construction methods have been addressed. The main goal of all this studies is design
of tunnel support system which is suited for civil engineer to keep the tunnel stable
and to make the opening usable .

2.2 NATM (new austrain tunneling method)

NATM has seven elements :-

1. Exploitation of the strength of native rock mass relies on the inherent strength
of the surrounding rock mass being conserved as the main component of
tunnel support. Primary support is directed to enable the rock to support itself.
2. Shortcrete protection -loosening and excessive rock deformation must be
minimised This is achieved by applying a thin layer of shotcrete immediately
after face advance.
3. Measurement and monitoring – Potential deformations of the excavation must
be carefully monitored. NATM requires installation of sophisticated
measurement instrumentation. It is embedded in lining, ground, and boreholes
In the event of observed movements, additional supports are installed only
when needed, with a resultant overall economy to the total cost of the project.
4. Flexible support – The primary lining is thin and reflects recent strata ,
conditions. Active rather than passive support is used and the tunnel is
strengthened by a flexible combination of rock bolts , wire mesh and steel ribs
,not by a thicker concrete lining.

14
`

5. Closing of the invert -Especially crucial in soft ground, the quick closing of
the invert (the bottom portion of the tunnel) which creates a load-bearing ring
is important, and has the advantage of engaging the inherent strength of the
rock mass surrounding the tunnel.
6. Contractual arrangements – Since the NATM is based on monitoring
measurements, changes in support and construction method are possible, but
only if the contractual system enables them.
7. Rock mass classification , ranging from very hard to very soft, determines the
minimum support measures required and avoids economic waste that comes
from needlessly strong support measures. Support system designs exist for
each of the main rock classes. These serve as the guidelines for tunnel
reinforcement.

Drilling is the process of making holes in hard materials such as rock and earth and
blasting is the controlled use of explosive and other methods such as gas pressure
blasting pyrotechnics, to break rock for excavation. See Figure 3 Drilling and
blasting method was first applied by the Tyrolean Kaspar Weondl in the silver mine
Banska Stiavnica in 1627. It can be applied to a wide range of rock conditions, is
suitable for the weak strength rocks (like chalk, clay, marl) as well as for the rocks
having high strength (such as quartz, basalt, gneiss, granite) (Arshad et al, 2016).
The cyclic design of the drill & blast process necessitates proper organization of the
work site. Blast vibrations and noise also limit drill & blast usage in urban areas.

Figure 3 Drilling Tunnel

15
`

2.3 Types of Tunnel

The design of the tunnel and underground infrastructure construction has usually
been focused largely on experience for a long time. However, the methodology of
tunnel excavation support is an evolving process of complex stress path, and the
intricate range of geological conditions and surrounding rock make matters worse,
So that solely rely on experience evaluation is very tough to release complex
mechanical behavior. Three-dimensional numerical simulation should be used as
the application of information science and computational technology for
quantitative measurement of the development process of complicated geotechnical
engineering. Most common terms are derived from the intended purpose, which
varies from soft ground, rock and mixed-face based on the materials from which
they are constructed tunnel types. The various types of tunnels can be constructed in
different shapes and supported uniquely depending on the purpose (Ongodia, 2017)

16
`

2.3.1 Based on consruction material

2.3.1.1 Hard ground tunnel
The time it takes for solid, very hard rock to stand up can be estimated in centuries.
In this environment, extra support for the tunnel roof and walls may not be required.
Many tunnels, however, move through rock that includes cracks or patches of
broken rock and engineers need to provide extra protection in the form of bolts,
sprayed concrete or rings of steel beams. They install in most cases a fixed concrete
liner. Specific techniques for constructing rock tunnels are used, based on the rock
strength and hardness. Moving on, the word tunnel refers to a rock-built hydro-
tunnel. Mechanized excavators are suitable for excavating softer rock, whereas hard
rock is suited to the TBM, SEM & B processes. The TBM is very common due to
quicker and more regulated tunneling capability although it has a high cost of capital
(Mohammed, 2015) (Ongodia, 2017).

2.3.1.2. Soft grounf tunnel

A tunnel constructed in soft soil, such as clay, sand, gravel or mud, faces a variety
of challenges (Ongodia et al., 2016). In this type of tunnel, stand-up time - how long
the ground will safely stand by itself at the point of excavation is of paramount
importance. As the standup time when tunneling into soft ground is usually low or
zero. Hence, immediate support for the gap is required (David et al, 2010). The
challenges range from face collapse, loose material such as quick sand or large silt
deposits encountered and very limited stand-up times. Therefore, great precaution is
required from the onset. Tunneling in soft ground requires specialized techniques
relative to hard rock, to compensate for the shifting nature of the soil. Common
methods used to excavate tunnels in soil include mining, using shields or the
pressurized face TBM which prevents the collapse of the ground (Blake, 1989).
Mining 6 typically takes place in stages according to some of the traditional

17
`

Sequential Excavation System (SEM) arrangements. Based on the stand-up time of

the unsupported excavation a suitable sequence is selected. Soft ground only has a
very short, or no, stand-up time. It is therefore necessary to support the void
immediately (David et al, 2010).

2.3.2 Based on cross section shape

Tunnels are also identified according to their cross-section and shape. The choice of
shapes mainly depends on purpose and the need for a working platform and minimal
stress concentrations. Traditionally early day tunnels were mostly square or
rectangular. Circular shapes became common with Barlow's shield discovery and
gradually further research and field applications produced more tunnel cross-
sections with better advantages (Ongodia, 2017). The most common shapes used are
discussed below:

1. Square and rectangular shaped sections are regular in shape, have flat bottoms
and are ideal for building and transport purposes of jacked boxes, see Figure 4 .

Figure 4 Square and rectangular shaped tunnel.

18
`

2- Horse-shoe shaped sections have a semi-circular roof, arched sides and a curved
invert as shown in Figure 5.The curved edges have minimal stress concentration
corners and the relatively smooth floor offers a good base for building work. Tunnel
roofs are curved to provide stability against collapse because the rock at the center
of a roof span is most susceptible to collapse (Marie, 1998). Horse-shoe shapes are
suitable for unlined rock, soft ground transportation tunnels and soft rock tunnels
with lined hydraulics. Although, they are difficult to construct, they deform less
than elliptical sections and thus require less support,making them an economical
option (Hoek et al.,1995) .

Figure 5 Horse-shoe shaped section.

By using Autocad i drew a horse-shoe tunnel and by using this equation at below i
estimated the area of it , i designed a tunnel of radius 4 meter such i showed below.

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = 𝑟 + ( − 𝛽) 𝑟22 + 𝛽𝑟32 − (𝑟1− 𝑟2 )𝑐 (𝛽 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑!)
2 2

19
`

Estimating area by taking these dimensions

from AutoCAD such I showed in the pic. :-
r1=4m b=5.72m

r2=1.23m a=4.28m

r3=6.16m 𝛽=0.314 Rad

and the Area is 36.25 m2.

!
@G S F- ;A P&.G
3. Elliptical sections have a narrow floor as Figure 5, and are often unsuitable for
traffic but can be used as tunnels for sewerage. They are suitable for soft ground
building rather than rock building, and present construction difficulties. Their fairly
curved walls resist external and internal pressure and only second to egg-shaped
sections maintain a self-cleaning velocity.

Figure 5 Elliptical section

20
`

4. Circular cross-sections offer greater resistances to external pressure than

elliptical sections, see Figure 6 , These are ideal for conveying water and sewerage
in lined soft ground conditions such as soft clay or cohesion-less soil (Luwalaga,
2013). They are unsuitable for traffic due to the need to backfilling which makes it
difficult to provide a fairly flat surface .desirable for vehicles.

Figure 6 Circular cross-section

2.4 shallow and deep tunnel

Shallow tunnels are often of the cut-and-cover type (if under water, of the immersed-
tube type), while deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling shield. For
intermediate levels. Shallow excavations are those that have a depth less than or
equal to the width of the excavation. For example, a trench that is 2 meters wide and
2 meters deep is a shallow excavation. Shallow excavations are usually easier and
cheaper to construct than deep excavations, as they require less support and
protection. However, shallow excavations can still pose significant risks, such as
collapse, groundwater inflow, and damage to adjacent structures. Therefore, it is
important to conduct a proper site investigation and soil testing before starting a
shallow excavation tunnel project. Deep excavations are those that have a depth
greater than the width of the excavation. For example, a shaft that is 3 meters wide

21
`

and 10 meters deep is a deep excavation. Deep excavations are more complex and
costly than shallow excavations, as they require more advanced methods and
equipment to ensure stability and safety. Some of the common techniques used for
deep excavations are diaphragm walls, secant piles, sheet piles, and anchors. Deep
excavations also need careful monitoring and control of groundwater, soil
movements, and environmental impacts.

2.5 shear force of tunnel

Shearing forces act in one direction at the top, and the opposite direction at the
bottom, causing shearing deformation. A crack or tear may develop in a body from
parallel shearing forces acting in opposite directions at different points of the bod
.Tunneling in a shear zone can have significant effects on the stability of the
tunnel. The presence of a shear zone can lead to stress concentration near the zone,
which can increase the risk of rockburst occurrences. The stresses in the rock mass
are concentrated near the shear zone, leading to potential displacement and
accumulation of high stresses. This can compromise the boundaries of the tunnel and
increase the likelihood of settlements, crack openings, and material strains . The
stability of the tunnel is influenced by the angle between the major principal stress
direction and the long axis of the tunnel . When the major principal stress direction
is parallel to the tunnel axis, the tunnel becomes more stable, while failure involves
spalling when the direction is perpendicular to the tunnel axis . Therefore, the
presence of a shear zone in a tunnel can have a major impact on its stability and
increase the risk of rockburst occurrences .

22
`

2.6 Basic idea of support

The lining of a tunnel is never loaded by the stress which initially prevailed in the
ground. Luckily, the initial (or primary) stress is reduced by deformation of the
ground that occurs during excavation but also after installation of the lining (here
'lining' is understood as the shell of shotcrete, which is placed as soon as possible
after excavation). Here we shall consider the important phenomenon that
deformation of the ground (soil or rock) implies a reduction of the primary stress.
This is a manifestation of arching. Since the deformation of the ground is connected
with the deformation of the lining, it follows that the load acting upon the lining
depends on its own deformation. This is always the case with soil-structure
interaction and constitutes an inherent difficulty for design as the load is not an
independent variable. Thus, the question is not 'which is the pressure acting upon the
lining', but rather 'which is the relation between pressure and deformation.

The consideration of deformation in tunnelling is a merit of NATM and is

schematically shown in

Figure 7. The rock is symbolically represented by a beam. Excavation and

installation of the lining is here represented by removal of the central column which
is replaced by a lower column. In other words, the central column (which symbolises
the lining) is displaced downwards and, therefore, receives a reduced load. Of
course, the principle 'pressure is reduced by deformation' is to be applied cautiously.
Exaggerated deformation can become counterproductive .

23
`

Figure 7.c leading to a strong increase of pressure upon the bearing construction. To
point this out was another merit of NATM: softening (and the related loosening) of
geomaterials is an important issue. It should be emphasised, however, that this
softening does not refer to the gentle stress reduction subsequent to the peak, as it is
obtained in laboratory tests on dense soil samples. In contrast, the drastic strength
reduction observed in poor rock due to loss of structural cohesion is meant.

Figure 7 . Explanation of support principles . the increase of load at transition b c is due to the loss of strength ( rupture )
of the beam .

24
`

Chapter 3
3. Methodolgy

3.1 Method of Designing

Designing and analyzing a tunnel was carried out with my supervisor who expertise
as a Geotechnical engineer by using PLAXIS 2D Software. We were able to apply
rigorous principles of engineering to ensure the channel's structural integrity. We
utilized studies to analyze the soil composition and geological conditions
surrounding the proposed tunnel site, which enabled us to design the tunnel.
throughout the design and construction process, we maintained open
communication, collaborating closely to address any challenges that arose. Dr.
Ahmed's guidance and expertise were invaluable in ensuring that our tunnel adhered
to the highest standards of structural integrity and safety. The steps of designing and
analyzing the tunnel have been presented in the following page:

25
`

1. Soil borehole
First of all , after giving a name to the project and selecting the dimension of length
X , depth Y axis , creating a borehole and putting it at the coordinate must be done.

I created a borehole and layers of the soil which number of the layers depends on
the situation of ground soil its type and property . I designed for one borehole for a
layer of clay soil which its depth start from zero to -50m and for the head of G.W
level I put it at -50m , such I showed in Figure 8.

Figure 8 borehole layers

26
`

2. Soil Bed
The characteristics of the soil modelled using soil hardening elastoplastic model. A
trail was made to use Hardening soil model to predict the behavoiur of the soil. The
model was unable to do so.

for 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 we put a value that is more than 𝛾𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡 value because its weight & density
is more than 𝛾𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡 and 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡 which is its value have been taken from the equation
𝐺𝑠 𝑊
of 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = .
1+ 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡

In this way ،we define the whole soil in the (show material) icon section such I
showed in Figure 9 .

Figure 9 Defining material

27
`

Then I give the correct value for the input parameters of Hardening soil model as
shown below in Figure 10 :

Figure 10 parameters

3. Defining concrete lining

Then after defining the clay soils of the tunnel in the same section which was (show
material) icon , the concrete lining properties defined as showed in Figure 11.

Figure 11 Defining plates

28
`

4. Shape of tunnel
At the ‘Structure’ Tab we imported the horse-shoe shaped tunnel to the software ,
which we bring it from autocad software such i showed in Figure 12, these black
lines is for separating each layers to other for digging stages .

Negative interfaces between the soil and the lining concrete of tunnel have been
showed around the tunnel and the data information for the designing of the tunnel
were like that :

• 23m deep depth (from surface to crowm)

• 9.5m shallow depth
• Slope 1H:2V

a) tunnel profile b) Tunnel lining and interface

Figure 12 Tunnel structure

29
`

5. Mesh
At mesh tab we Generated the mesh with meduim option showed in Figure 13 a) ,
then clicked at icon of (view mesh) for showing us all the stress points of the tunnel
structure for both shallow and deep tunnel , it helps us properly for knowing the
location of the stress and its distribution around the tunnel , with all its nodes ,
showed in Figure 14 b) ,and we must know these information for designing .

Figure 13 a) meduim mesh

30
`

Shallow tunnel

Deep tunnel

Figure 14 b) stress distribution

31
`

6. Calculation

At the tab of ‘ staged construction ‘ after clicking on the(view calculation Result ),

we can see the results of forces , moments ,Shear and deformation of both shallow
and deep tunnel ,with both direction X and Y , and value of the deformation , shortly
i can say that it gives you every details of the designed tunnel in a package ,and i
will discuss the results in next chapter .

32
`

Chapter 4

4. Results and Discussions

4.1 Method of excavation:
Two different excavation methods were followed to comapre them. The first one is
CCT and the second one is NATM. The procedure for each method has been
explanied in chapter 2. Table 1 shows all numerical results from the outputs of the
Plaxis 2D software including the shear forces, bending moments and lining
deflections for both crown and invert concrete lining of the CCT and NATM under
shallow and deep conditions. The table also shows the comparison between these
values.

Table 1: Shear forces, bending moments and lining deflections for crown and invert concrete lining
of the CCT and NATM under shallow and deep conditions.

33
`

4.2 Shear force on the deep tunnel concrete lining

As shown in Figure 15 the shear force diagram on the crown for deep tunnel concrete
lining , the maximum value of negative and positive shear force had been shown ,
based on these results of shear force we will design the thickness of the lining tunnel
,the maximum positive value of the shear force was 122.2kN ,the invert part of the
tunnel had not been shown below because its result is nearly similar to the crown
and has same analyzing for the results of shear distribution .

Figure 15 Shear force diagram for deep NATM with arching

34
`

4.3 Bending momnets on the deep tunnel concrete lining

As shown in Figure 16 the bending moment diagram on the deep tunnel of the crown
tunnel part ,the maximum value of negative and positive moments have been
distributed and shown below , the maximum positive value of the BM was 71.81
kN.m ,based on these results of moments we will recovery lining of concrete for the
tunnel , only bending moment for deep tunnel had been shown , shallow tunnel for
BM had not been shown because of the similarity of the case .

Figure 16 Bending moments diagram for deep NATM with arching

35
`

4.4 Defelections in the tunnel concrete lining

4.4.1 Deflections of tunnel under Shallow conditions
As shown in Figure 17 ,Figure 18 and Figure 19 the deflection diagram of tunnel
under shallow condition for both NATM and CCT cases had been shown , the
maximum value of negative and positive deflections have been distributed and
shown below with its scale and value in detail . the maximum positive value for
(CCT , NATM with arching and NATM no-arching) were (0.018 ,3.177 * 10 -3 and
1.580 * 10 -3 ).

Figure 17 Deflections of tunnel under shallow conditions for CCT.

36
`

Figure 18 Deflections of tunnel under shallow conditions for NATM without arching.

Figure 19 Deflections of tunnel under shallow conditions for NATM with arching.

37
`

4.4.2 Deflections of the tunnel under deep conditions

As shown in Figure 20, Figure 21 and Figure 22 the deflection diagram of tunnel
under deep condition for both NATM and CCT cases had been shown , the maximum
value of negative and positive deflections have been distributed and shown below
with its scale and value in detail . . the maximum positive value for (CCT , NATM
with arching and NATM no-arching) were (0.068 ,0.0127 and 1.638 * 10 -3 ).

Figure 20 Deflections of tunnel under deep conditions for CCT.

38
`

Figure 21 Deflections of tunnel under deep conditions for NATM without arching.

Figure 22 Deflections of tunnel under deep conditions for NATM with arching.

39
`

4.5 Influences of arching in NATM

The tunnel lining at the first case was built directly after the full face excavation
which not allowed the surrounding soil to defom (i.e. without arching). In the second
senario the soil excavation completed and its deformation was allowed and then the
concrente lining casted (i.e. arching allowed). This two senarios seems has a great
influences on the behavoiur of the tunnel lining in tems of shear force (SF), bending
moments (BM) and deflections (DF) on the lining as explained in the next paragraph.

A comparison between shear force, bending moments and deflections of the deep
tunnel crwon for NATM without arching and NATM with arching performed. The
comparison shows that the values of SF, BM and DF were 202.3 kN, 341.9 kN.m
and 1.17mm in the case of no arching, whereas, the corresponding values were
122.2kN, 217.8 kN.m and 0.47mm when arching was allowed. From the prevoius
comparison, it can be seen that in the second senario that the values of SE, BM and
DF were reduced by 80.1 kN , 124.1 kN.m and 0.7 mm , this is effect on the design
of the thickness of lining , which means that it needs less amount of concrete and
because of the reduction of cement using ,less pollution of carbon-dioxide will be
prevent .

40
`

4.6 SF, BM and DF comparison between CCT and NATM

With comparing the reduction factor for all result values of shear force , bending
moment and deflection , between the NATM and cut-and-cover method, it was found
that NATM has a greater influence than CCT, because of the influence value of
NATM for each (SF, BM and Df ), they were (40% , 30% and 98%) lower than cut-
and-cover , because of that we will get better results with using NATM method of
building tunnel instead of CCT.

For the comparison of arching and no-arching types of NATM we got very good
results compared with previouse comparison , the reduction value with arching of
NATM for each (SF, BM and DF) were (39.6% ,36.3 % and 60%) lower than
without arching of NATM. With arching case of NATM, tunnel is very important
for re-distributing stresses the soil espicially for the deflection case.

For the crown and invert comparison the reduction factor has similar trend in the
reduction of SF and BM ,DF .We calculated reduction for the shallow depth of the
crown and for all values it was slightly lower than deep tunnel.

Smaller value of SF , BM and DF means better result for analyzing the stability of
tunnel , stress distribution , and designing of the tunnel. Another advantage is that
we will decrease the tunnel lining thickness and other elements which make the
process to be need less material for usage and building the tunnel.

41
`

Chapter 5

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion
The basic objective of this study is considering the engineering geotechnical factors
influencing the stability of tunnel support and design systems for safe and stable
underground tunnels. The stability of the tunnel was assessed by assessing peak
loads that creating instability in the crown of the tunnel, bench and invert.with using
PLAXIS 2D software the output results were like that :

The shear force on the crown for deep tunnel concrete lining, its maximum positive
value was 122.2kN ,the invert part of the tunnel had not been shown because its
result is nearly similar to the crown. This value was minimum reflecting that the
NATM with arching is the most economical way to produce safe and economy
tunnel lining thickness.

The bending moment on the deep tunnel of the crown tunnel part, its maximum
positive value was 71.81 kN.m. This value was minimum reflecting that the NATM
with arching is the most economical way to produce safe and economy tunnel lining
reinforcement.

The deflection value of shallow tunnel, its maximum positive value for (CCT ,
NATM with arching and NATM no-arching) were (0.018 ,3.177 * 10 -3 and 1.580 *
10 -3 ). This value was minimum reflecting that the NATM with arching is the most
economical way to produce less tunnel lining deflection.

the deflection value of deep tunnel , its maximum positive value for (CCT , NATM
with arching and NATM no-arching) were (0.068 ,0.0127 and 1.638 * 10 -3 ).

42
`

5.2 Recommendations
More investigation is required to descovr the arching effect on the tunnel lining.

With the help of my supervisor, Dr. Ahmed, and the robust capabilities of PLAXIS
2D, I was able to design and build an intricately detailed and functional tunnel
channel. Our collaborative effort resulted in a high-quality design that effectively
addressed the challenges of constructing a tunnel in a complex and dynamic
environment.

43
`

REFRENCES

1. Afradi A and Rezazadeh S (2018). Stability Analysis and Support Design of

Imam Reza Tunnel in Ardabil Sarcham Road by Numerical Methods. Civil
Engineering Journal .Vol. 4, No. 1.p.151-178.

2. Arshad, R. A. Abdullah (2016). A Review on Selection of Tunneling Method

and Parameters Effecting Ground Settlements. EJGE.Vol. 21, p. 4459- 4475.

3. Cao Ch, Shi Ch, Lei M, Yang W, Liu J. (2018). Squeezing failure of tunnels-
A case study. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology .77. p. 188–
203.

4. Chapman D, Metje N and Stark A (2010).Introduction to Tunnel

Construction. Vol.3. 1st publish, Spon Press, 2 Park Square, Milton Park,
Abingdon.2nd publish, Spon Press, USA and Canada.

5. Cui Z D, Zhang Z L, Yuan L, Zhan Z X, Zhang W K (2020). Design of

Underground Structures. China Architecture & Building Press, Beijing,
China.

6. Daraei A , Aryan Far H. Sherwani , Rabar H. Faraj , Qobad Kalhor , Zare S,

Mahmoodzadeh A (2019). Optimization of the outlet portal of Heybat Sultan
twin tunnels based on the value engineering methodology. Springer Nature
Journal.

7. Daraei A, Bengin M. Herki , Aryan Far H. Sherwani , Zare S (2018).

Rehabilitation of Portal Subsidence of Heybat Sultan Twin Tunnels:Selection
of Shotcrete or Geogrid Alternatives. International Journal of Geosynthetics
and Ground Engineering. Springer International Publishing AG.

8. 59 Daraei A, Zare Sh (2019). A new multi-graph approach for selecting the

sequential excavation method of civil tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground
Space Technology. 91.

44
`

9. Evelyn O J (2017). Geotechnical Engineering Design of a Tunnel Support

System -A Case Study of Karuma (600MW) Hydropower Project.
Geotechnical Engineering group at the University of Cape Town.

10.Tunneling and Tunnel mechanics By Dimitrios kolymbas (Book)

11.David_Chapman,_Nicole_Metje,_Alfred_Stärk_IntroBookZZ_org_Copy
(Book )

12. dr-sauer.faqs.(2013).when-and-why-choose-natm-over-tbm-and-cut-and-
cover-tunnelling-techniques

13.hindawi.(2020). Journals,amse , 4508905

45