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Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Upon completion of Chapter 5, students should be able to:

● Explain and differentiate between various controller structures such
as lead compensators, lag compensators, and PID controllers.
● Analyze system requirements (e.g., stability, speed, and accuracy)
to select the appropriate controller.
● Apply empirical tuning methods, particularly the Ziegler-Nichols
method, to size and adjust a PID controller.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The various types of controllers are used to improve the performance of control
systems. This section shows how to introduce additional parameters into a system
so that we can control the location of all closed-loop poles.

The basic controllers are proportional, derivative and integral.

Proportional Controller

A Proportional Controller (P) is one of the simplest types of controllers used in control
systems. The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to
error signal.

Where:
u(t): is the control output
𝑘𝑝 is the proportional gain
e(t) is the error, defined as the difference between the desired setpoint and the actual
process variable.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is 𝑘𝑝

Where:
u(s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t)
𝑘𝑝 is the proportionality constant
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t)

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional controller is shown in the following figure:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Characteristics of a Proportional Controller

Error Correction: The proportional controller reduces the error by producing an output
that is proportional to the magnitude of the error. A large error leads to a strong
correction.

Response Speed: The response of the system depends on the value of the
proportional gain 𝑘𝑝 A higher gain results in a faster response.

Steady-State Error: A proportional controller typically cannot eliminate steady-state

error (offset). There will always be a small residual error unless additional control
strategies (like integral action) are applied.

Simplicity: Easy to implement.

Immediate response: Proportional control provides an immediate and continuous

correction based on the error.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Consider a first-order plant with proportional control as shown in the figure.

The open loop transfer function for the plant is:

𝑘𝑝
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑇𝑠 + 1
and the closed loop transfer function is:

For a unit step input as reference, the steady state error that the plant produces is
given by E(s):
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The steady state error ess (or offset) is given by:

From these equations, we can observe that with the inclusion of proportional control,
the time constant of the system has reduced from:

𝑇
𝑇 𝑘𝑝 + 1
This means that the system responds much faster now.

Another observation is that the steady state error (offset) can be reduced by
increasing the proportional gain Kp; but that may also cause increase oscillations for
higher order systems thus, taking the poles to the right half of the s plane making
the system unstable.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Integral Controller

An Integral Controller (I) is a control strategy that eliminates steady-state error by

integrating the error over time and adjusting the control signal accordingly.

The integral controller produces an output, which is integral of the error signal.

It is typically used in combination with a proportional controller (as part of PI or PID

controllers) but can also be used on its own.

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of the integral controller is 𝑘𝐼 /s:

Where:
u(s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t)
𝑘𝑝 is the integral constant
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t)
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the integral controller is shown in the following figure.

The integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error.

Characteristics of an Integral Controller

Elimination of Steady-State Error: The integral action ensures that the system
eventually reaches zero steady-state error. Even small persistent errors are
integrated over time, causing the controller to correct them.

Control Output Response: The longer the error persists, the larger the control output
becomes, which allows the controller to push the system towards the setpoint.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Consider a first-order plant with integral control as shown in the figure.

The open loop transfer function for the plant is:

and the closed loop transfer function is:

For a unit step input as reference, the steady state error that the plant produces is
given by E(s):
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The steady state error ess (or offset) is given by:

With the integral control, the major advantage is that the steady state error due to step
input reduces to zero. But simultaneously, the system response is generally slow,
oscillatory and unless properly designed, sometimes even unstable due to the
possible addition of an open loop pole.

The step response of this closed loop system with integral action is shown in the next
figure.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Derivative Controller

A Derivative Controller (D) is a control strategy that responds to the rate of change of
the error, effectively predicting the future behavior of the error and applying a
corrective action. The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of
the error signal.

It is often used in combination with proportional and integral controllers in PID control
systems but can also be applied on its own in some cases.

Apply Laplace transform on both sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is 𝑘𝐷 /𝑠

Where:
u(s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t)
𝑘𝐷 is the derivative constant
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t)
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The derivative controller is used to make the unstable control system into a stable
one.

Characteristics of a Derivative Controller

Predictive Action: The derivative controller acts on how fast the error is changing,
providing a damping effect that helps prevent overshooting or oscillations.

No Impact on Steady-State Error: The derivative controller does not directly affect the
steady-state error, as it only responds to changes in the error, not its magnitude.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Combination of basic controllers

Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller

The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of

the outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.

Applying Laplace transform on both sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is 𝑘𝑝 + 𝑘𝐷 s

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional derivative controller is shown in the following figure:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control system
without affecting the steady state error.

Characteristics of a Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller

Proportional Action (P): Provides a response proportional to the error, ensuring

immediate reaction to deviations but may leave a steady-state error.

Derivative Action (D): Predicts error changes, helping to reduce overshoot and
oscillations, leading to smoother, more stable responses. However, it may increase
sensitivity to noise.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Example: Consider the plant with a proportional control as shown in the next figure:

The closed loop transfer function of the above system is:

Whatever the value of Kp , this system is purely oscillatory as it is marginally stable

(has poles on the imaginary axis) for a step input. Assuming Kp = 10, the response
is:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

We need our controller to somehow damp these oscillations, and this job is done with
the derivative controller:

The output of the controller is:

The closed loop transfer function of the system now becomes:

Now this is always stable given that Kd and Kp are greater than 0. For simulation, we
shall take Kd = 5 and Kp = 10, with δ=0.79, which means the system is slightly
underdamped (0 < δ < 1) and hence we should see a slight overshoot.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Proportional Integral (PI) Controller

The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of

outputs of the proportional and integral controllers.

Applying Laplace transform on both sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of proportional integral controller is 𝑘𝑝 + 𝑘𝐼 /s

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional integral controller is shown in the following figure:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without
affecting the stability of the control system.

Characteristics of a Proportional Integral (PI) Controller

Proportional Action (P): Provides a response proportional to the current error,

delivering immediate corrections but may leave residual error if used alone.

Integral Action (I): Eliminates steady-state error by accumulating past errors and
adjusting the control signal accordingly. However, too much integral action can lead
to overshoot and slower response.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

1
Example: Consider the second order system 𝐺 𝑠 = and its block diagram with
𝑠 𝑠+10

an integral control:

The open loop transfer function of the above system is:

This now has two overlapping poles at origin, then the system inherently becomes
unstable.

Let’s take Ki = 10:

The system starts becoming more oscillatory

(higher natural frequency).

Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

We need our controller to somehow eliminate the oscillations. To this end, we can add
a proportional controller:

For simulation, we shall take KI = 10 and Kp = 10:

The P-I action provides the dual advantages of fast response due to P-action and the
zero steady state error due to I-action. So we can conclude that by using P-I
control, the steady state error can be brought down to zero, and simultaneously, the
transient response can be improved.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The output responses due to P, I and P-I control for the same plant can be compared
from the sketch shown in next figure:

Comparison among the transient responses with P, I and PI control

Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller

The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the

combination of the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.

Applying Laplace transform on both sides:

𝑘𝐼
Therefore, the transfer function of proportional integral controller is 𝑘𝑝 + + 𝑘𝑑 𝑠
s

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along
with the proportional integral derivative controller is shown in the following figure:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the
control system and to decrease steady state error.

Characteristics of a Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller

Proportional Action (P): Reacts immediately to the current error, providing a strong
corrective response proportional to the error size.

Integral Action (I): Eliminates steady-state error by summing past errors, ensuring the
system reaches the exact setpoint.

Derivative Action (D): Predicts future error changes to reduce overshoot and dampen
oscillations, improving system stability.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

1
Example: Consider the second order system 𝐺 𝑠 = and its block diagram with a
𝑠 2 −10

PD control:

The closed loop transfer function becomes:

Let’s take KP = 20 and KD = 10:The system seems to be stable, but there seems to be
a large steady state error:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Now we shall include the integral controller:

The closed loop transfer function will now be:

For simulation, we shall take KI = 5, KD = 10 and Kp = 20:

The steady state error is eliminated, and a stable

response has been achieved through PID
control. It is also possible to achieve even better
tracking by properly tuning the parameters KI ,

KD and Kp
 Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Control Type Advantages Disadvantages

- May leave a steady-state error.

- Simple to implement and understand.
Proportional (P) - High gains can lead to oscillations or
- Provides immediate response to error.
instability.

- Eliminates steady-state error over time. - Can cause overshoot if not tuned well.
Integral (I)
- Ensures precise tracking of the setpoint. - Slower response to sudden changes.

- Reduces overshoot and dampens

oscillations. - Sensitive to noise in the error signal.
Derivative (D)
- Improves stability by anticipating error - No effect on steady-state error alone.
changes.

- Eliminates steady-state error with integral

- May have overshoot and longer settling time.
action.
Proportional-Integral (PI) - Slower response to rapid error changes
- Suitable for systems needing precise setpoint
without derivative action.
tracking.

- Quick response and reduced overshoot with

- May leave a steady-state error.
Proportional-Derivative (PD) derivative action.
- Sensitive to noise in the error signal.
- Minimizes oscillations without integral action.

- Combines the benefits of P, I, and D for

accurate, stable control. - Complex to tune due to three parameters.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
- Eliminates steady-state error and minimizes - Derivative action can amplify noise.
overshoot.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Ziegler-Nichols Rule

The Ziegler-Nichols tuning method is a popular technique for setting the parameters
(gains) of PID controllers to achieve a desirable control response.

It provides empirical formulas for tuning the proportional (P), integral (I), and derivative
(D) gains based on the system’s response to certain conditions, aiming to achieve a
balanced response with minimal oscillations and overshoot.

The Ziegler-Nichols rule is a heuristic PID tuning rule that attempts to produce good
values for the three PID gain parameters:

❏ Kp - the controller path gain

❏ Ti - the controller's integrator time constant
❏ Td - the controller's derivative time constant
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The process of selecting the controller parameters to meet given performance

specifications is known as controller tuning. Ziegler and Nichols suggested rules for
tuning PID controllers (meaning to set values) based on experimental step responses or
based on the value of that results in marginal stability when only proportional control
action is used. Such rules suggest a set of values of Kp, Ti and Td, that will give a stable
operation of the system.

Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band,
integral gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to optimum values for a target response. Tuning
is part of loop design, usually required if the system oscillates too much, responds too
slowly, has steady-state error, or is unstable.
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

There are two main methods in Ziegler-Nichols tuning:

• First method: The Open-Loop Method (for systems without oscillations)

• Second method: The Closed-Loop Method (for systems that can exhibit sustained
oscillations)

First method: The Open-Loop Method (Step Response Method)

The Open-Loop method is suitable for systems that respond to a step input but do not
produce sustained oscillations. This method is based on analyzing the system’s step
response curve. In the first method, we obtain experimentally the response of the plant to
a unit-step input. If the plant involves neither integrator(s) nor dominant complex-
conjugate poles, then such a unit-step response curve may look S-shaped:

S-shape
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The S-shaped curve may be characterized by two constants, delay time L and time
constant T. The delay time and time constant are determined by drawing a tangent line
at the inflection point of the S-shaped curve and determining the intersections of the
tangent line with the time axis and line c(t)=K:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

The transfer function C(s)/U(s) may then be approximated by a first-order system with a
transport lag as follows:

Ziegler and Nichols suggested to set the values of and according to the formula shown in
the next table:

𝐾𝑝
𝐾𝑖 =
𝑇𝑖
𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Summary of steps first method:

1. Apply a step input and observe the system's output curve.

2. Determine the delay time L (time taken for the output to start responding) and the
time constant T.

3. Calculate Kp, Ki and Kd, using Ziegler-Nichols formulas based on L and T.

Example:

Given the open loop (plant) system, apply the Ziegler–Nichols tuning rule for the
determination of the values of parameters Kp, Ti ad Td, using the first method.

30
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 4 + 10𝑠 3 + 35𝑠 2 + 50𝑠 + 24
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Apply a step input and observe the system's output curve. Then, determine the delay
time L (time taken for the output to start responding) and the time constant T.

𝐿 = 0.6s
T = 1.8s
K = 1.25
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Calculate Kp, Ki and Kd, using Ziegler-Nichols formulas based on L and T.

𝐿 = 0.6s
T = 1.8s
K = 1.25
𝑌(𝑠) 𝐾𝑒 −𝐿𝑠 1.25𝑒 −0.6𝑠
= =
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑇𝑠 + 1 1.8𝑠 + 1
Type of Kp Ti Td
controller
P 3 ∞ 0

PI 2.7 2 0

PID 3.6 1.2 0.3

For PID:
𝐾𝑝 3.6
𝐾𝑖 = = =3
𝑇𝑖 1.2
𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 = 3.6 0.3 = 1.08
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

𝐾𝑝 3.6
𝐾𝑖 = = =3
𝑇𝑖 1.2
𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 = 3.6 0.3 = 1.08
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Second method: The Closed-Loop Method (Ultimate Gain Method)

This method is applied to systems where we can achieve sustained oscillations by

increasing the proportional gain alone. In the second method, we first set and Ti=∞ and
Td=0. Using the proportional control action only, increase Kp from 0 to a critical value
Kcr at which the output first exhibits sustained oscillations.

Thus, the critical gain Kcr and the corresponding period are experimentally determined:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Ziegler and Nichols suggested that we set the values of the parameters and according to
the formula shown in the next table:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Summary of steps second method:

1. Set Ki (integral gain) and Kd (derivative gain) to zero.

2. Increase the proportional gain Kp until the system reaches the critical (ultimate) gain
Kcr at which sustained, constant-amplitude oscillations occur.

3. Measure the ultimate period Tcr , the time period of the sustained oscillations.
4. Calculate Kp, Ki, and Kd based on Kcr and Tcr using the Ziegler-Nichols formulas.
Example:

Given the open loop (plant) system, apply the Ziegler–Nichols tuning rule for the
determination of the values of parameters Kp, Ti ad Td, using the second method.

30
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 4 + 10𝑠 3 + 35𝑠 2 + 50𝑠 + 24
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Set Ki (integral gain) and Kd (derivative gain) to zero. Increase the proportional gain Kp
until the system reaches the critical gain Kcr:
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Measure the ultimate period Tcr.

𝐾𝑐𝑟 = 4.2
Tcr = 2.81s
Chapter 5: Control Systems Controllers

Calculate Kp, Ki, and Kd based on Kcr and Tcr using the Ziegler-Nichols formulas.
𝐾𝑐𝑟 = 4.2
Tcr = 2.81s

Type of Kp Ti Td
controller
P 2.1 ∞ 0

PI 1.89 2.34 0

PID 2.52 1.41 0.35

For PID: 𝐾𝑝
𝐾𝑖 = = 1.79
𝑇𝑖
𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 = 0.89
THANKS