Psychological Maltreatment - The Case of Verbal Abuse
Psychological Maltreatment - The Case of Verbal Abuse
Psychological Maltreatment - The Case of Verbal Abuse
UNI ScholarWorks
1999
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Khalifah, Majedah, "Psychological maltreatment : the case of verbal abuse" (1999). Dissertations and
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PSYCHOLOGICAL MALTREATMENT:
An Abstract of a Thesis
Submitted
in Partial Fulfillment
Master of Arts
Majedah Khalifah
July 1999
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the present study was to explore the relationship between parental
verbal abuse and children's emotional development (depression, anxiety, stress, self-
esteem, and anger). The participants were 29 male and 89 female college students whose
average age was 19. Five instruments were used to collect data: Depression, Anxiety, and
Child Attitude Toward Parents Measure, and State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory.
For data analyses, several tests were used. The Pearson correlation was calculated
was used to find out what variables predicted the level of state anger. Moreover, an
independent simple t-Test was conducted to examine gender differences. Finally, a one-
way ANOV A was used to see family configuration and the effects of verbal abuse.
The findings indicate several correlations between parents' verbal abuse and
children's depression, anxiety, stress, anger, and self-esteem. The results show that the
more verbal abuse participants experience, the higher their depression, anxiety, and
stress, and the lower their self-esteem. In addition, the findings show an inverse
correlation between anger and parents' verbal abuse. The findings also indicate that males
have more negative attitudes toward their mothers than females. In addition, the findings
show that different family configurations have an impact on the individuals. Therefore,
parental verbal abuse has both short- and long-term effects on children's emotional
development. Although, implications were drawn for teachers, counselors, and parents,
A Thesis
Submitted
in Partial Fulfillment
Master of Arts
Majedah Khalifah
July 1999
11
has been approved as meeting the thesis requirement for the Degree of Master of Arts in
Education.
d ~ i l s ~ ~ ~ m i t t e e Member
16-, Irr
Date John W. Somervill, Dean, Graduate College
lll
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the completion of this thesis. First, I would like to thank Allah, God almighty. Next, I
would like to thank Dr. Radhi Al-Mabuk, my thesis chair, and adviser. For all his help,
support, and understanding over the past two years. His guidance and counsel have been
a tremendous help. He has been an excellent mentor for the two years that I have been at
University of Northern Iowa. I am extremely grateful for his dedication. Next, I would
like to thank the other members of my thesis committee, Dr. Barry Wilson and Dr.
Suzanne Freedman, for their input in this process. All of their comments and suggestions
have been very helpful. My special thanks to Mrs. Carole Yates for her insightful
A special thanks to Dr. Joan E. Farstad and Dr. Eldon N. Peters for allowing me
to recruit their students to participate in the study. I would also like to thank all of the
students who took the time to complete my questionnaire, without them this study could
Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank Kuwait Government without
their funding I wouldn't be here. I would like to thank my parents, sisters, and brothers
for their support and encouragement. I would like to thank Jacquelyn Plowman for her
support. A special thanks to Yukari Kajishima, my friend, for all the help she provided
me with this study. Finally, I would like to thank Randa Taouk, my friend, for all her help
and support and encouragement in this project and everything else that I do.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................... VI
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................... 1
Definition of Terms................................................................... 5
Summary................................................................................ 32
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY......................................................... 35
Participants.............................................................................. 35
Instruments............................................................................... 35
Procedure................................................................................. 43
Research Questions...................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS................................................................... 45
V
PAGE
Regression Analysis................................................................... 49
Independent Simple t-Test.. .. . .. . ......... .. . .. .... ......... .. ...... ... .... .. . .. . ... . . 51
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION............................................................... 54
Research Questions...................................................................... 54
Conclusion................................................................................. 63
REFERENCES................................................................................ 67
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
When we hear the word abuse, most of us think of physical or sexual abuse.
Rarely do we think of or even talk about verbal abuse, a form of abuse that goes on
everyday in many people's lives. According to Becker (1998), verbal abuse is one of
many types of psychological maltreatment that adversely affects one's emotional, social,
and intellectual development. Making fun, calling names, and disrespecting are examples
of verbal abuse that can have many damaging effects on a person (American Academy of
Pediatrics, 1995).
Considered a form of emotional abuse, verbal abuse is unique because it takes the
her/him feel guilty. In addition, both the child victim and the adult survivor often find it
difficult to trust their own judgement, and they discredit their own reactions and feelings
Verbal abuse is probably the hardest of all forms of abuse to identify and is the
least understood form of child maltreatment. Its victims are often dismissed simply
because their wounds are not visible (National Research Council, 1993). In other words,
verbal abuse is not like physical and sexual abuse, which are against the law and are
responded to by medical and social service authorities or even by the police. Verbal
abuse is a more subtle form of abuse which is hard for an outsider to recognize or
consequences for the individuals (Healthy Way Magazine, 1997). If a parent intentionally
or deliberately uses a pattern of inappropriate emotional responses, the child can be said
deep and persistent effects of verbal abuse (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1995).
The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between verbal abuse and
self-esteem, depression, stress, anxiety, anger, and how it impacts a child's relationship
Verbal abuse does not leave physical injuries. Although it continues, there is
usually no visible evidence which would precipitate health, welfare, or criminal justice
professionals to identify it (Oates, 1996). For that reason, emotional abuse is the most
emotional abuse across the United States (Hart, Brassard, & Karlson, 1996). However,
the absence of an operational definition means that the extent of emotional abuse is
Verbal abuse is also widespread in other countries. For example, the most recent
national Australian data, produced by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare,
indicated that in 1995-1996 emotional abuse cases which included verbal abuse
1997).
3
Little research has been done on the extent of verbal abuse. Most of what are
called incidence or prevalence studies only provide information on emotional abuse cases
that have been reported to human services agencies (Vissing et al., 1991). Based on 1986
data of emotional abuse, the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children
The average age of a maltreated child was 7 years, compared to 5 years for those
children who were reported for major physical abuse. Verbally abused children were
more likely to come from single parent families and have parents with health problems
Many people have experienced verbal abuse. Tragically, many never realize that
their experiences with verbally abusive adults (parents) were twisted and that not
withdrawal of love. Even though verbal abuse is the most common form of emotional
abuse, this type of mistreatment is not often identified for what it is. Its survivors seldom
understand why they have feelings of depression, anxiety, stress, and have low self-
esteem. Emotional abuse is insidious and rampant in every society. We need to recognize
and act against it, whether our goal is to help others, to enjoy more fulfilling relationships
The causes and consequences of verbal abuse are quite complex. It is particularly
difficult to understand the effects this kind of child maltreatment has on the emotional
development of children. This complexity is related in part to the fact that maltreated
4
range of effects on a child's healthy development can ensue. The effects of verbal abuse
may be brief, lasting for hours or days, long-term, or perhaps permanent. The depression,
anxiety, and stress a child might experience could manifest itself in many ways, including
these problems are not specific to maltreatment, it is likely that an association does exist
A critical aspect of verbal abuse prevention is knowing its underlying causes and
consequences. Therefore, this study examines some of the consequences by looking at the
variables of depression, anxiety, stress, self-esteem, anger, and relationships with parents.
1. What are the relationships between verbal abuse and the affective variables of
2. Does the child's attitude toward his/her mother/father relate to verbal abuse?
4. Does the family configuration affect (i.e., intact family, lived with
mother/father, foster family, and other step father/mother) relate to verbal abuse?
5
Definitions of Terms
1. Emotional Abuse: any injury that introduces emotional pain in the child (in the
form of fear, humiliation, distress, despair, etc.). The resulting pain inhibits the child
person or communication perceived as having that intent. The communicative act may be
active or passive, and verbal or non-verbal. Examples include name calling or nasty
and stony silence or sulking (passive, non-verbal); (Vissing, Straus, Gelles, & Harrop,
1991).
behavior that takes five forms: rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, ignoring, corrupting
Because the terms emotional abuse and psychological maltreatment have been
used to describe a host of symptoms, including verbal abuse, for the purpose of this study
the words verbal abuse, psychological maltreatment, and emotional abuse will be used
interchangeably.
6
Chapter One. Chapter Two, will discuss problems with the definitions of verbal abuse,
prevalence and incidence, types of verbal abuse, the etiology of verbal abuse and
consequences of verbal abuse. Chapter Three will describe the methodology used in this
study and will include the participants, instruments, and procedure. Chapter Four will
report the findings of the study. Chapter Five will present a discussion of the findings,
some limitations of the study, and offer implications and future directions.
7
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents the literature review on verbal abuse organized in five parts:
(a) problems with definitions of verbal abuse; (b) prevalence and incidence of verbal
abuse; (c) types of verbal abuse; (d) etiology of verbal abuse; (e) consequences of verbal
During the last two decades, physical and sexual abuse have become the focus of
public interest. However, the problem of psychological abuse, which includes verbal
abuse, should likewise be considered. The increasing rate of emotional /verbal abuse over
the last decades and its dangerous effects on children have shown researchers the need to
better define this fmm of child maltreatme~t and to clarify the criteria for intervention on
the part of courts, welfare departments, and child-protection organizations. For this
reason, the first part of this chapter focuses on the problems with definitions of verbal
abuse.
abuse under terms such as analytic depression and mother-child separation. Recent
research indicated that neither verbal abuse nor its related concepts such as psychological
abuse or maltreatment have a standard definition (Hart, Germain, & Brassard, 1987). In
the child abuse literature, terms such as psychological abuse (Garbarino et al., 1986;
McGee & Wolfe, 1989), verbal abuse (Warner, Parker, & Calhoun, 1984), emotional
8
to predominate.
Still others used the terms mental injury (National Center on Child Abuse and
Neglect, 1992), and verbal aggression (Vissing et al., 1991). Each of these concepts is
intertwined with the others. Since the similarities and differences in the definitions have
not been fully expressed theoretically, it is difficult to know which of these terms to use.
Brassard, Hart, and Hardy (1993) stated that "definitions produced so far have been
inadequate" (p. 717). The following section will provide definitions of verbal abuse,
Verbal Abuse
They used the term "verbal /symbolic" because they believed that nonverbal
some other end. For example, verbal abuse would be a parent who attempts to end some
unpleasant behavior by exclaiming, "Stop it, stupid." This is what Gelles and Straus
aggression may be an end in itself. For example, a parent angry with a child may express
9
the anger by a hurtful remark such as "you are a dummy, and you don't understand
Infante (1989) referred to verbal abuse as verbal aggression and defined it as the
pain. In addition, he believed that the destructiveness of verbal abuse included unpleasant
which can seriously impair a child capacity to recognize and deal with the reality of
Emotional Abuse
accompanying expressive behavior" (p. 28). Therefore, she believed such abuse inhibits
the child's capacity for spontaneous, positive, and appropriate emotional expression. In
addition, O'Hagan believed that emotional abuse impairs emotional and mental life and
concentrating on the effects the abuse has on a child's emotional life and mental
development. O'Hagan's definition pointed out that parents are not the only individuals
who emotionally and psychologically abuse children (the words " parents " and
"caregivers" do not appear in her definition). O'Hagan concluded, emotional abuse is the
appropriate term when the focus is the impairment of the child's mental life. Thus,
10
emotional abuse can undermine the development of children's cognitive competency and
social skills and can have a detrimental effect on children's trust and on the way they
The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN) (1992) referred to
parents or other persons responsible for the child's care that have caused, or could cause,
serious behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. The NCCAN stated that
some parental acts without any evident harm to the child's behavior, such as scapegoating
McGee and Wolfe (1991) noted that many legal and procedural definitions of
emotional abuse were so broad that caseworkers commonly assumed emotional abuse
rarely existed on its own. Although emotional abuse can occur alone, Claussen and
Crittenden (1991) identified this form of abuse as the core component and major
deeply rooted patterns of scapegoating in families where children become the source of
blame for the parents' inability to resolve the detrimental consequences of their own
experiences ofrejection and family trauma. Pillari noted that some professional systems
continue to blame children for parental disturbances, further compounding the effects on
the child and minimizing the potential for parents to change behaviors and attitudes
towards children.
11
Psychological Maltreatment
adult attacks a child 's self-esteem and social competence. This form of abuse is seen, for
example, in comments made with intent to ridicule, insult, threaten, or belittle the child.
Because of the absence of physical evidence, these verbal acts make psychological
repeated pattern of behavior that conveys to children that they are worthless, unloved,
unwanted, or only of value in meeting others" (p. 715). They pointed out that the word
interpersonal aspects.
the message given to the child that is critical to the child's experience of the abuse. For
example, yelling and shouting at a child communicates "I don't love you."
separate identity of another person. Therefore, murdering someone's soul mean depriving
the victim of the ability to feel joy and love as a separate person. Shengold said that the
attack by an adult on a child 's development of self and social competence, a pattern of
physically destructive behavior and it takes five forms: rejecting, isolating, terrorizing,
However, some issues arise from their definition. First, the word "concerted"
implies that the behavior is intentional and planned. Children are very often
Second, the term "by an adult" is limited. Peer groups of any age are capable of
psychologically destructive behavior, and the current exposure of the extent and bullying
Third, replacing the term "psychically destructive" with the term psychological
maltreatment leaves the definition subject to too many interpretations. Fourth, the five
forms of behavior identified in this definition may not be psychically destructive. Some
are, in fact, inappropriate responses, which nearly all parents will inflict upon their
(O'Hagan, 1995).
was active and repetitive over long periods of time. Nevertheless, each need not be
parents are capable. Therefore, children who experience all of Garbarino's types of
There has been little research on the prevalence of verbal abuse. Most of the
research is from what are called incidence reports which only provide information on the
extent of verbal abuse that has co-occurred with other types of child maltreatment known
Prevalence
of all reported cases of child maltreatment across the United States. The National
Incidence Study-3 (NIS-3) indicated that emotional abuse occurs in children ages 8 and
older. That data suggested victims of emotional abuse were 53% females and 47% males.
Furthermore, the data showed an estimated 77% to 87% of children at risk of being
maltreated in all types of maltreatment forms in single and intact parent families. The
NIS-3 estimated the number of emotionally abused children was 183% higher than the
In a survey of 3,345 parents with a child under 18 years of age, 63% reported one
or more types of verbal abuse (Vissing et al., 1991). A study by Claussen and Crittenden
(1991) proved that 19% of psychological maltreatment usually co-occurred with physical
abuse. Results from a survey by Daro, Abrahams, and Robson ( 1988) found that 70% of
American adults believed that there would be harmful effects on children's emotional
Incidence
cases over the NIS-2 in 1986 and NIS-1 in 1980. The Vissing et al. (1991) study
investigated parents' verbal aggression. Results indicated that 63.4% of children had
experienced at least one incident of verbal /symbolic abuse. Because the data in the
Vissing et al. study are based on self-reports of violent behavior, some parents will not
accurately report the number of times they have verbally attacked their children. In
addition, Vissing et al. found that 84% of fathers and 90% of mothers acknowledged
witnessing verbal /symbolic violence. These results are supported by studies that report
frequency of parental verbal abuse at close to 90% (Briere & Runtz, 1988).
suggested that the accurate frequency of emotional abuse is still unknown (National
(1998), verbal abuse included acts, or the failure to act, by parents or caretakers that have
caused or could cause serious behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. This
could include parents using extreme forms of punishment, such as a child's' confinement
in a closet or dark room, being tied to a chair for long periods of time, threatening, or
terrorizing a child. Less severe acts, but no less damaging, are belittling or rejecting
treatment, using derogatory terms to describe the child, and habitual scapegoating or
blaming.
15
Brassard and Hardy (1997) identified six forms of child maltreatment. The first
was called "spurning" which included verbal and nonverbal acts that reject and degrade a
child. This included belittling, degrading, and other nonphysical forms of open criticism
or rejection. Moreover, spurning also involved shaming and/or ridiculing the child for
showing normal emotions such as affection, grief, or sorrow, and consistently singling
out one child to humiliate and punish, to perform most of the household chores, or to
The second form was called "terrorizing." This included placing a child in
threat of loss, harm, or danger if they are not met; threatening violence against the child;
"Exploiting /corrupting" was the third form of maltreatment from parent(s) acts
maltreatment where the parent(s) ignored the child's attempts to interact and showed no
emotion in interactions with the child. Denying emotional responsiveness meant being
detached and uninvolved through lack of motivation and failing to express affection,
The fifth form of child maltreatment was "isolating" where the parent(s)
adults inside or outside the home. Isolating included confining the child or placing
unreasonable limitations on the child's freedom within his/her environment, and placing
community.
"Mental health, medical, and educational neglect" was the sixth and final form of
maltreatment where the parent(s) ignored, refused to allow, or failed to provide the
necessary treatment for the child's mental health, medical, and educational problems or
emotional maltreatment.
Briere (1992) summarized the major forms of parental verbal abuse by drawing
upon the work of several investigators (e.g., Hart et al., 1987): (a) Rejection, causing the
in which the child is verbally assaulted, frightened, and threatened with physical or
psychological harm; (d) isolation, in which the child is deprived of social contacts outside
of the family; (e) corruption, in which the child is encouraged to engage in antisocial
behaviors; (f) lack of emotional responsiveness, in which the child is deprived ofloving,
17
(a) rejecting, the adult refused to acknowledge the child's worth and the legitimacy of the
child's needs; (b) isolating, the adult cut the child off from normal social experiences,
prevented the child from forming friendships, and made the child believe that he or she
was alone in the world; (c) terrorizing, the adult verbally assaulted the child, created a
climate of fear, bullied, frightened the child, and made the child believe that the world
was capricious and hostile; (d) ignoring, the adult deprived the child of essential
(e) corrupting. the adult mis-socialized the child, stimulated the child to engage in
destructive antisocial behavior, reinforced that deviance, and made the child unfit for
Garbarino et al. (1986) also argued that each of the five forms of psychological
maltreatment had a differential effect on children depending on their passage through the
four major developmental stages of infancy, early childhood, school age, and
adolescence. Hart, Germain, and Brassard (1987) extended Garbarino's original typology
What are the causes of parents' verbal abuse? Why do parents verbally abuse their
children? Understanding the causes and reasons for verbal abuse may help efforts to
18
recognize its negative impacts on children's emotional development and may help prevent
it. According to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (1996), a variety of
manifestations caused child maltreatment. While there may be less agreement about
specific causes, most will agree that child maltreatment occurred as a result of multiple
forces that impact the family interactions and eventually resulted in child maltreatment.
Since the 1970s when the socio-cultural context of child maltreatment in families
was recognized (National Research Council, 1993), researchers have investigated the
and/or family structure have been frequently investigated as social factors which may
affect maltreatment. While investigations of single variables, like family structure, have
they have neither produced a causal explanation of child maltreatment nor enabled the
acknowledged that no single factor can fully explain why maltreatment occurred
result of the pattern of interaction between themselves, their families, and environments.
It must be emphasized that while certain factors may often be present among families
where maltreatment occurred, that does not mean the presence of these factors will
always result in maltreatment in another family. In this section, the focus will be on some
of the factors associated with child maltreatment. The four factors discussed are (a) child
19
Child Characteristics
resentment or helplessness in their parents. In addition, she believed that some children
were more difficult than others. Children who were perceived as "different" or "difficult"
by their parents were at greater risk for being maltreated. Browne and Finkelhor ( 1988)
believed that the child's behavior, such as unresponsiveness, could increase the likelihood
of maltreatment particularly if a parent had a poor ability to empathize with the child and
Bryer, Nelson, Miller, and Krol (1987) argued that some children might
made it difficult for the parent(s) to relate to them. Furthermore, they believed that a child
who constantly screamed or cried was less capable of soliciting nurturing responses from
his/her parents who lacked emotional support and had few nurturing skills.
emotionally vulnerable than others to be maltreated by their parents. Factors such as the
child's age, physical, mental, emotional, and social development could greatly increase or
characteristics with parental factors including the parent-child relationship, single parent
Oates (1996) pointed out a common feature in parents who emotionally abused
their children-- they did not know about their children's different developmental stages.
She believed that emotional abuse could occur in all families and in all social
psychological needs, because they lacked respect for their children's thoughts and
feelings. In addition, some parents were inconsistent in their parenting style, and
therefore, their children received conflicting contradictory messages and saw their
parents as unreliable. She concluded that emotionally abusing parents lacked parenting
Ito (1995) believed that adults (parents) who were victims of verbal abuse might
carry intense feelings of repressed anger toward their abusers, which they vented on their
O'Hagan (1993) believed frequent quarrels between parents, rejection, and cruelty
(verbal put-downs) when dealing with their children, and a stressful environment could
have devastating impacts on children and their parents. In addition, the family income
Garbarino et al. (1986) stated that the family was a set of developing individuals
who were constantly engaged in creating conceptions of who they were, as well as trying
to comprehend the situations they encountered. Thus, the family was a social system in
its own right. When family members communicated with each other, their behavior
showed how they perceived themselves and others. Garbarino et al. concluded that we
21
need to understand how each family members' perception of self and others influenced
the interactions with the previously developed patterns of communication and with
In the United Kingdom, Browne and Stevenson (as cited in Sheerer, 1997)
identified numerous factors that may lead to parental verbal abuse. These included: a
or separated parent, young mother, an infant separated from mother for more than 24
hours post-delivery, less than 18 months between the birth of children, an infant never
Much of the research done on parental factors focused on mothers from low
National Research Council, 1993). However, little research on verbal abuse has been
done on the role of fathers, stepfathers, or other family members, except in the case of
sexual abuse (Corby, 1993). Thus, attempts to assess relationships within the family
Family Configuration
Tomison (1996) stated that the place of children in the family and roles of
parenthood have become increasingly complex and problematic. Children are now
22
significantly more likely to be raised by single families, and large numbers of children
Clulow (1993) believed that in the last 25 years significant changes in family
structure have been experienced in countries around the world. Official statistics showed
that Australia, the United States, and most European countries have experienced higher
rates of divorce, falling marriage rates, and an increase in the number of couples living
together outside of marriage. There has been concern about the changing shape of the
family, specifically the effects that changes in family structure have on parenting and
children's behavior. Corby (1993) argued that these changes to family structure add
Single parent families. Iwaniec (1995) stated that single parents dominated among
abusive parents. They were young, immature, and unprepared for the responsibilities they
face. They also lacked family support and suffered from social isolation. Therefore, a
children's needs, who tended to become withdrawn and detached. Iwaniec suggested that
mothers were more likely to maltreat their children when fathers were uninvolved in
child rearing.
Creighton and Noyes (1989) found that in England one-third of the children
reported for emotional abuse resided with a single parent. They concluded that poverty,
Ney (1988) found that maltreated mothers verbally abused their children the same
way they had been abused by their parents. Ney research done in 1987 suggested that
verbal abuse is more likely to be transmitted intergenerational than physical abuse. Ney
concluded that to prevent mothers from maltreating their children, the mothers needed to
know that what happened to them during their childhood was abuse, and they needed to
understand the effects of the abuse on them. Furthermore, she suggested that verbal abuse
left deeper scars than physical and sexual abuse. Biller and Solomon (1986) believed that
Intact families. Iwaniec (1995) pointed out that in a two-parent family some
parents are reserved and undemonstrative. Therefore, the emotional contact with their
children is restricted. Some, on the other hand, might be tired and overwhelmed with
their children was restricted. This may cause unintentional verbal abuse.
maltreating parents such as low self-esteem, low intelligence, ego deficiency, impulsivity,
hostility, isolation and loneliness, anxiety, depression and apathy, rigidity, fear of
Biller and Solomon (1986) argued that in two-parent families mothers seemed
more likely to maltreat or to overprotect their children when fathers did not share
parenting responsibilities. Fathers who were very controlling, punitive, and authoritarian
were likely to have children who had serious identity and relationship problems. Some
24
parents, especially fathers in a two-parent family, have difficulty bonding with their
family was a very important because an imbalance can cause maltreatment to the child.
Garbarino et al. (1986) believed that parents who gave inappropriate responses to
a child often did so because they lacked respect for the child's personality, thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors. Such parents often undervalued the child's accomplishments or
dismissed the child's limitations and weaknesses. They may have became sarcastic
toward the child and conveyed an overall message of personal insignificance and
worthlessness. They taught the children that they (the children) were not to be respected
and valued.
The most consistent finding in the child abuse literature was that maltreating
neglected as children.
Step families. Though it was widely assumed that children were at greater risk of
maltreatment in step families (stepfather), few studies have actually investigated the
relationship between step families (stepfather) and maltreatment. The National Research
Council (1993) noted that children who had a stepfather were at greater risk of child
Rouleau, as cited in the National Research Council, 1993) found that 49% of fathers and
stepfathers were at risk of abusing their stepchildren and their own children.
Creighton and Noyes (1989) found that in 32% of physical abuse cases the child
resided with one natural parent (usually the mother) and one substitute parent (usually
25
male). Blended families were identified in 15% of neglect cases, 11 % of failure to thrive
cases, and 36% of emotional abuse cases, and were thus clearly over-represented in the
reported among families suspected of child maltreatment and/or those with a history of
Environmental Factors
According to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (1996), the
incidence of child maltreatment was higher in some cultures, societies, and communities
than others. Moreover, what one culture defined as child abuse and neglect may be a
socially acceptable interaction in another culture. Economic values concerning the role of
the child in the family, attitudes about the use of punishment, and the degree of social
Garbarino et al. (1986) stated that families stressed by their everyday living and
overwhelmed by their child care responsibilities tended to lose whatever positive coping
skills they may have possessed and slipped into an escalating pattern of child
maltreatment. Although they may have relationships with other families in the
community, Garbarino et al. concluded that since all families suffered from the same
situation and none knew how to get out of it, these families did not function as a positive
social support. Rather, they served as a mechanism for reinforcing the apathetic and futile
worldview that the world is unjust and people like them always suffer. These networks
26
also reinforced the idea in the parents that child maltreatment was justified under such
circumstances.
Insulting names, degrading comments, and belittling criticism can have dramatic
may developed many problems related to the maltreatment in their lives, and many of
these problems carried on into adulthood. It is believed that verbal abuse can last over a
long time and its effects increased and became more severe. The old saying "sticks and
stones may break my bones, but words can never hurt me" had no truth. A child,
teenager, or young adult could have been given the message by parents that showing
emotions, especially anger, was wrong, shameful, and weak. Therefore, children
Haj-Yahia and Noursi (1998) found maltreated children who witnessed and
increased anxieties, and would become abusive parents later in life. Day (1998) also
believed an environment of parents; verbal abuse had an effect on children's low self-
esteem and other emotional consequences. Day said that verbal abuse could damage
interaction skills. Day noted that babies raised in an emotionally barren environment that
were not held or touched in a loving way did not thrive properly. Name-calling or
children who felt worthless and inadequate. Day concluded that from constant
27
humiliation the victims of verbal abuse would withdraw from others. Conversely, this
could limit a child's capacity to learn in school, and the child might become unable to
verbal abuse on children's developmental stages are as follows: (a) infants had poor
health, poor sleep habits, excessive screaming, attachment disorders, and failure to thrive;
regression, aggression, attacking peers in distress, and poor appetite; (c) school-aged
They also startled easily, showed low cognition, diminished memory, suppression of
adolescents showed poor school performance (and some may have dropped out of
school), as well as precocious sexual behavior, drug use, antisocial behavior feelings of
role in whether or not parental actions were considered psychological maltreatment. For
example, some specific acts of abuse may have a more devastating effect on a younger
emotional abuse on adult functioning. Erickson and Egeland (1999) believed that
emotionally abused children learned at an early age that their emotional needs were not
28
met, which resulted in a feeling that they were not valuable human beings. They learned
not only that they could not trust the adults who should care for them, but also that they
were powerless to solicit the care they needed. They (emotionally abused children) were
likely to be at-risk for depression or have problems with aggression and self-control.
Although the effects of emotional abuse on adults have not been extensively
adult's feelings of depression, hostility, anger, shame, and general social and
psychological maladjustment. However, Walker (1994) believed that adults who were
psychological defenses and resources necessary to fend off the negative effects of verbal
Kiser, Heston, Millsap, and Pruitt (1991) found symptoms of depression and
severe anxiety in their sample of maltreated children and made similar findings. They
believed that a maltreated child might lead a life of incompetence and failure at school,
on the job, and in marriage. These were common in the histories of abusive adults. This is
a natural accompaniment for a person with low self-esteem, a sense of helplessness, and
depression.
Varia, Abidin, and Dass (1996, p. 522) wrote about the effects of maltreatment on
both genders:
Men are more likely to utilize a denying coping strategy to deal with past abuse.
Men are taught to deny their affect because being emotional is not considered
masculine (Huston, 1983; Skitka & Maslach, 1990). Perhaps, the lack of
emotional expression can lead to an employment of more avoidance and
minimizing coping strategies in an attempt to obscure earlier trauma. Through
29
societal sex role expectations, males are taught to deal with emotionally difficult
events in a very different manner than females. (Bern, Martyna, &Watson, 1976)
Hart, Germain, and Brassard (1987) believed that boys and girls who lived with
verbal abuse. They could become withdrawn, unresponsive, fearful, anxious, and socially
and emotionally isolated (Iwaniec, 1995). Biller and Solomon (1986) said the paternally
anxiety and low self-esteem. Bowlby (1980) believed that parents who paid little of
attention to the child's needs, or were consistently unwilling or unable to meet the child's
Tucker-Ladd (1,999) believed that maltreated children usually felt helpless and
were more likely to sulk, pout, look unhappy, or lay a guilt trip on something than to get
angry. Erickson and Egeland (1999) indicated that early psychological maltreatment may
have lasting effects on children, leading them to experience many of the same problems
as those who have been physically and sexually abused. They also believed that
deserving of the terrible abuse they suffered. They concluded that although abused
children may grow physically, emotionally they stay at the level of hurt, angry, and
Hoglund and Nicholas (1995) found that increased exposure to emotional abuse
was related to expressed and unexpressed anger. Macpherson (1984) pointed out that all
30
maltreated individuals had problems expressing anger. Although maltreatment made the
individual very angry, he or she was conditioned not to express it in direct or healthy
ways. A direct expression of anger was difficult, not only because it might bring
retaliation by the parent, but also because it did not seem right. From the child's
perspective, the situation looked like this: "My parents are hurting me and this makes me
mad; but how can I get angry at them if I also believe they are right and that I deserve to
Osofsky and Fenichel (1994) believed that maltreated children might suffer from
substance abuse, and suicidal behavior. These studies were notable because they
demonstrated that emotional abuse could be even more devastating than physical and
sexual abuse. It is possible that emotional abuse served as a mediating factor that had not
behavior have been associated with disrupted social relations, social isolation,
unavailability, a failure to use social supports, and an inability to cope with stress
symptoms sufficiently severe to warrant a depressive diagnosis. He also pointed out that
31
emotional abuse had more negative effects on children than any other form of abuse
(physical, sexual).
According to Vissing et al. (1991), a child who was not hit but was constantly
told that he or she was unworthy will have low self-esteem. They believed that parental
verbal abuse was directly related to the behavior problems of the child. They believed
that the more frequent the rate of verbal abuse for the parent, the greater the probability
of psychosocial behavior problems by the child. Vissing et al. concluded that parents'
verbal abuse affected all age groups, both sexes, and all families regardless of their socio-
economic status.
Moore ( 1991) believed that less severe forms of early emotional abuse might
produce babies who grew into anxious and insecure children who were slow to develop
or who might have low self-esteem. Other studies focused on the critical period of
mother - infant attachment during the first few months of life, revealing a dysfunctional
Verbal abuse was difficult to define because of wide discrepancies in what people
considered verbal abuse. Hart, Germain, and Brassard (1987) suggested that what one
child considered as abusive might not be the case for another. Moreover, what one adult
would consider abusive behavior, such as yelling, another adult may consider unpleasant
but not abusive, and yet a third adult may consider fair game. For example, a person who
experienced infrequent degrading by name-calling may not experience this as abuse, but
32
another person who is criticized on a daily basis for many years may feel devastated by
of maltreatment. Martin's first point was that abused children were unhappy children and
lacked the capacity to enjoy age-appropriate play activities. This could take the form of
seriousness, which probably reflected clinical depression. Martin 's second point dealt
with object relations. He believed that maltreated children had not learned to have healthy
The third and final point is that a healthy environment for the maltreated child
was very important for his /her well-being. In such a healthy environment, the maltreated
child would be well-adjusted and his/her emotional needs would be considered. Martin
concluded that without a healthy environment the abused child's behavior would be shy,
Summary
There did not seem to be a standard definition of parental verbal abuse or related
concepts such as psychological or emotional abuse, nor were there independent studies of
verbal abuse because it usually co-occurred with other forms of child maltreatment.
Research indicated it was possible that emotional abuse served as a mediating factor that
had not been considered in other studies of childhood maltreatment and adult functioning.
This idea was based on the contention that psychological maltreatment usually
accompanied other forms of abuse and was often more devastating to the child. It was
33
believed that parents' verbal abuse went unidentified even more often than other forms of
child maltreatment. If identified, it was less likely to be recognized, and its effects did not
receive serious intervention or results in court involvement. For these reasons, it was
contended that studies with samples drawn from the general population provided more
extensive and destructive impact on the development of children than other types of
abuse and neglect. The studies also indicated that a large part of the negative impact
associated with emotional maltreatment might be more clearly understood in the context
of those abusive or neglectful behaviors within the family that constituted psychological
maltreatment.
explained by any one factor. The National Research Council (1993) noted that little was
currently known about the specific contributions of individual factors (such as poverty,
problems, or about the conditions under which these factors interact with other social and
personal factors to produce maltreatment. Within this context, the evidence for family
dysfunction, most notably depressive symptoms, stress, anxiety, and low self-esteem.
and adulthood problems associated with childhood abuse were similar in males and
34
females. Severity of the abuse, including the use of threat or force, longer duration,
dysfunction. However, it remained unclear whether specific forms of abuse were more
The research on parents' verbal abuse pointed out that victims often suffered from
depression, anxiety, stress, low self-esteem, and negative attitudes toward the parents
who abused them. Thus, the focus of this study was to investigate the relationships
between parents' verbal abuse and depression, anxiety, stress, self-esteem, and the
relationship with parents. The next chapter describes the methodology of the study.
35
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter consists of four parts: (a) a description of the gender and the age of
the participants; (b) a description of the development of the instruments used in the study;
(c) an elaboration of the procedure for the data collection; (d) a discussion of the data
Participants
The participants were from five education classes in a mid-sized university in the
Midwest. The participants were Caucasians. There were 118 male and female college
undergraduate students in the sample, 29 male, and 89 female. Their average age was 19
years old.
Instruments
Five instruments were used in this study: the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress
Scales (DASS-21), Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, the Verbal Abuse Measure, the
Child Attitudes Towards Parents Scales, and the State-Trait Anger Inventory Measure.
The DASS is a set of three self-report scales designed to measure the negative
emotional states of depression, anxiety, and stress (see Appendix A). The DASS was
anxiety, and stress. Each of the three DASS scales contains 14 items, divided into sub-
21--was used with 7 items per scale. The scales of the DASS have been shown to have
The scales should meet the needs of both researchers and clinicians who wish to measure
a participant's current state or a change in their state over time. The rating scale is as
follows: (0) Did not apply to me; (1) Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time;
(2) Applied to me to a considerable degree or a good part of time; (3) Applied to me very
much or most of the time. The DASS was designed to provide relatively pure measurer of
the three related negative affective states of depression, anxiety, and stress (Lovibond &
Lovibond, 1995).
dispirited, gloomy, blue, convinced that life has no meaning or value, pessimistic about
involved, slow, and lacking in initiative. The Anxiety Scale assesses autonomic arousal,
affect. The Stress Scale assesses difficulty relaxing, nervous arousal, being easily upset or
Lovibond ( 1998) found that the DASS scales consisted of 42 negative emotional
symptoms. The scales rate the extent to which the participants have experienced each
37
symptom over the past week, on a 4-point Likert severity/frequency scale. According to
Lovibond (1998), the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (DASS) show good
convergent validity with other scales designed to discriminate between depression· and
anxiety. Alpha coefficients for three 14-item DASS scales are as follows: Depression
, According to Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, and Swinson (1998), the Depression
Anxiety Stress Scales may hold more promise for distinguishing between anxiety and
generalized anxiety (for example, tension or agitation). Factor analytic studies with non-
clinical (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) and clinical samples (Brown, Chorpita, Korotitsh,
& Barlow, 1997) have confirmed that DASS items can be reliably grouped into three
scales: (1) Depression (DASS-D); (2) Anxiety (DASS-A), and (3) Stress (DASS-S). The
Depression Scale includes items that measure symptoms typically associated with a
dysphoric mood (e.g., sadness or worthlessness). The Anxiety Scale includes items that
are primarily related to symptoms of physical arousal, panic attacks, and fear (e.g.,
trembling or faintness). Finally, the Stress Scale includes items that measure symptoms
To date, only one published article has addressed the psychometric properties of
the DASS (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). This study suggested that DASS has excellent
internal consistency and temporal stability and provides a better separation of the features
In summary, the study by Antony et al. ( 1998) confirmed previous findings that
DASS is a reliable and valid method of assessing features of depression, anxiety, and
Furthermore, the 21-item version of the measure appears to have several advantages
relative to the 42-item version, including fewer items, a cleaner factor structure, and
The adult form (for ages 16 and over) of the Coopersmith (1981) Self-Esteem
Inventory (CESI) was used in this study as a measure of self-esteem (see Appendix B). It
general self. The items are short statements, generally answered "like me" or "unlike me."
Examples of some items are: "I find it very hard to talk in front of a group," "I give in too
easily," "I have a low opinion of myself." The CSEI is self-administered and takes about
10 minutes to complete.
Scoring the forms takes only a few minutes when the scoring key is used. The
examiner needs to sum the number of self-esteem items answered correctly to arrive at a
total self-score. For the Adult Form, one needs to multiply the score by 100. High scores
Robinson, Shaver, and Wrightsman (1991) reported a Cronbach of .83 for internal
consistency on the CSEI. Kokens reported a study of CSEI construct validity, (1974,
39
1978). Her investigation included over 7,600 school children ingrades 4 through 8.
Kokens found correlations of .75 and .44 with the Edwards and Marlowe-Crowne social
desirability scales (Taylor & Reitz, as cited in Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman, 1991).
by Al-Mabuk (1990) was used in this study (see Appendix C). The measure's focus was
modified from parental love deprivation to indexes of verbal abuse to make the
instrument more applicable to this study. A definition of parental verbal abuse, also it
included three statements about physical abuse, sexual abuse, and alcohol problems was
added.
The measure consists of three parts. The first part has 10 questions to which the
respondents answered either "Yes" or "No." Examples include," Do you resent the way
your mother raised you?" "Did you feel love for your father?" The second part of this
verbal abuse, living arrangements, and frequency and intensity of verbal abuse.
answered the questions using the operational definition of verbal abuse in this study.
After reading the definition, participants were asked to list two specific incidents they
remembered vividly when they were verbally abused by their parent (s). Next,
participants were asked to describe the living arrangment and the people with whom they
40
lived during their childhood. They were given four responses to chose from: (1) intact
family, (2) one-parent family, (3) orphan home, or (4) other (which the participant must
specify).
Participants next marked which of the three categories best represented the
frequency of their parents' verbal abuse on them. The three categories were: (1) All the
time, (2) Some of the time, and (3) Rarely. The final part of this sub-scale dealt with the
duration and the period during which the verbal abuse took place. For the duration, the
participants selected from four categories (1) Weeks, (2) Months, (3) Years, and (4)
Other (which the participants specified). The information obtained through this second
subscale served two purposes: (a) to ascertain that participants were in fact verbally
abused by their parents when they were younger and ( b) to obain a profile of the
The third part of parental verbal abuse measure has 25 statements that deal with
the nature of the participant's relationship with his/her mother. The same scale was used
to investigate the relationship with the father. The participants rated themselves on a 5-
points Likert scale. The five categories were (5) Strongly Disagree, (4) Disagree, (3)
The three parts of this measure dealt with the nature of the relationship between
the participants and their parents. The statements in Part 3 dealt more specifically with
the participants feelings and attitudes about their mother and father. Examples of
statements in Part 3 are: "I did and still receive putdowns from my father," "I feel that
my father never was sarcastic toward me,"" I feel resentful toward my father for saying
41
cruel things to or about me. 11 A sample of statments from Part 3 include," My mother hurt
my feelings by calling me names when I was a child,"" I feel love for my mother," "I
wish that my mother was warm and affectionate toward me when I was growing up," "I
would want the same mother to take care of me if I had to do it over again." The range of
high score indicated a high level of parents' verbal abuse, and a low score indicated a
The Child Attitude Toward Father (CAF) and Child Attitude Toward Mother
(CAM) scales developed by Hudson (1976) were used as a measure of attitudes toward
parents (see Appendix D). These two scales were designed to measure the degree of
contentment a child (ages 12 and older) has with his/her father and mother. The scale is
designed to measure the extent of a relationship problem. Each scale has 25 brief, self-
report items. The items are short statements measuring the degree of one's contentment
in the relationship with his/her parents. The items are rated on a 5-points Likert scale.
The five categories are: (1) Rarely or none of the time, (2) A little of the time, (3)
Sometimes, (4) Good part of the time; and (5) Most or all of the time. Some of the
statements are formulated in the negative, such as" I dislike my mother,"" I feel very
angry toward my father." Others are positively worded, such as " I get along well with
statements to control for the effect of response set biases. The score on each scale has a
42
possible range from 0 to 100. A high score in either scale indicated a high degree of
conflict or negative attitude toward that parent. The author of these two scales stated that
they are both reliable and vaild. Each has a reliability of .90, and both have high face,
including their being short, easy to administer, easy to interpret, easy to complete, easy to
score, and do not suffer response decay when used repeatedly over many occasions (Al-
Spielberger (1991, see Appendix E) consists of three subsets of items which asked
respondents about (a) how angry they are feeling now (i.e., state-anger), (b) how angry
they generally feel (i.e., anger-trait), and (c) how they behave when they get angry (i.e.,
anger-expression). The sample items include "I am furious," "I feel irritated" for the state-
anger, "I am quick tempered," "I have a fiery temper" for the trait-anger, and "I control
Scoring: The Trait-Anger items are rated on 4-points Likert scale, which has four
categories such as "not at all," " sometimes," " moderately, " or " very much so." The
possible scores range from a minimum score of 10 (low anger) to a maximum score of 40
(high anger) in the anger-state and anger-trait items, and from a minimum score of24
(low anger) to a maximum score of96 (high anger) in the anger-expression items.
43
Reliability: The (STAS) has very good reliability. The internal consistency is .93
for the state-anger, .86 for the trait-anger, and .73 to .84 for the anger-expression
(Spielberger,1991). In addition, studies on the validity of the STAXI indicate that the
sub-scale of the trait-anger correlates signifcantly and positively with with three measures
of hostility, and measures of neuroticism, psychotism, and anxiety (Fischer & Corcoran,
1994).
Procedure
asked the participants to fill them out and return them the following day. The participants
were assured that their responses would be kept confidential. They were told not to
provide any personal information. To ensure anonymity and maximize honest responses,
the students returned the instruments to a designated mailbox. The researcher collected
the protocols and made sure that they were filled out properly. Two of the instrument
The researcher conducted the following methods of data analysis for this study.
First, the reliability of the instruments was calculated, then the standard deviation of
emotion indexes was calculated. Second, to answer Research Question 1, the Pearson's
correlation coefficients were calculated to see how the variables correlated with each
other, and whether differences among the variables would exist or not between parent(s)-
conducted to examine what could be a predictor of the motive for parental verbal abuse,
and whether or not verbal abuse could be a factor which may influence such behavior.
t-Test to examine gender differences in each variable and to see what variables related to
parent (s) verbal abuse. A fifth and final test, one- way- ANOVA was used to answer
Research Question 4 to see the differences in the family status (i.e., single family, intact
Research Questions
1. What are the relationships between parents' verbal abuse and the affective
2. Does the child's attitude toward his/her mother/father relate to parents' verbal
abuse?
4. Does the family configuration (i.e., intact family, lived with mother/father,
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This chapter presents the data analysis of the study. It consists of six parts: (a)
reliability scores for the instruments used in this study; (b) descriptive statistics of the
emotion indexes; (c) reports of the Pearson correlation coefficients, which were
calculated to see the inter-correlations of each emotional variable; (d) multiple regression
analysis; (e) t-test data of gender differences for each variable; and (f) the results of the
The internal consistency of the five scales used in this study was examined. The
reliability coefficient of each scale is as follows: alpha of .92 for the DASS
Questionnaire, alpha of .31 for the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, alpha of .50 for
the Verbal Abuse Questionnaire, alpha of .56 for the (You and Your Father)
Questionnaire, alpha of. 77 for (You and Your Mother) Questionnaire, alpha of .69 for
the Child Attitude toward Mother Questionnaire, alpha of .88 for the Child Attitude
toward Father Questionnaire, and alpha of. 78 for the State -Trait Anger Inventory.
In this study, indexes were created to represent feelings such as depression, stress,
anxiety, anger, self-esteem, attitude toward parents (father/mother), and verbal abuse
measure (you and your father/mother). Every index was the sum of all the items in the
scale, and the measurement levels of these indexes were all intervals. However, the
anger inventory used three different sub-scales of anger (state-anger, trait-anger, and
46
anger-expression) with three different anger indexes. These indexes were also the sum of
each sub-set of the scale, and the measurement level was all intervals.
toward Parents (father/mother); verbal abuse measurement (You and Your Father/
Table 1
Index M
Angerl 12 3.9
Anger2 17.2 4.9
Anger3 55.9 6.1
Self-esteem 39.6 2.4
DASS 13.7 9.4
Child attitude toward father 62 5.4
Child attitude toward mother 62.5 5.2
You and your father 96.4 13.3
You and your mother 94.5 9.7
Verbal abuse 7.4 3.3
Note. M represents the average value and SD represents the standard deviation.
The first question the study investigated was: what are the relationships between
verbal abuse and depression, anxiety, stress, anger, and self-esteem? Pearson correlation
coefficients were calculated to see the inter-correlations of each emotional variable. Table
Table 2
Anger 1
ATF .00
MEM -.14 .11 -.45** -.21 * -.12 -.36** 19* -.02 -.13
between Anger l(state-anger) and DASS. There was a low correlation between Anger 1
and Anger 2 (trait-anger) (12 = .30 at the level of 0.01), and a low correlation between
Anger 1 and verbal abuse ( 12 = .30 at the level of 0.01). There is a negative and low
48
0.05 significant level. In addition, a negative and low correlation was found between
Anger 1 and Child Attitude toward Mother p = -.31 at the level of 0.01.
There was a slight correlation between Anger 2 and Child Attitude toward Father
p = .19 at the 0.05 significant level, and a low correlation between Anger 2 (anger- trait)
Anger l(state-anger) at Q = .30 at 0.01 significant level, and a negative and low
correlation between verbal abuse and the You and your Father at Q = - .33 at the 0.01
significant level. Low correlations between verbal abuse and DASS were found p_= .28 at
the 0.01 significant level, and between verbal abuse and Anger 2 (trait-anger) at the p =
For Self-esteem and Anger 1 (state-anger) a negative and low correlation occurred
Q..= - .21 at the 0.05 significant level, and between Self-Esteem and DASS p = - .38 at the
0.01 significant level. There was negative and low correlation between Self-Esteem and
(state-anger) at p =. 20 at 0.05 significant level. A negative and low correlation was found
between Anger 3 (anger-expression) and Child Attitude toward Father Q..= -. 24 at 0.01
significant level. There was low correlation between Anger 3 and DASS p_= .20 at 0.05
49
significant level. Also between Anger 3 and Anger 2 of 12.= .23 at 0.05 significant level,
and between Anger 3 and Verbal Abuse :g = .24 at 0.05 significant level.
and low correlation was found at 12.= -. 31 at 0.01 significant level. A moderate
correlation occurred between Child Attitude toward Mother and Child Attitude toward
Father at :g = .45 at 0.01 significant level. In addition, Table 2 shows a slight correlation
between Anger 3 (anger-expression) and You and your Mother Q = .19 at the 0.05
significant level.
There was a moderate correlation between family relationship the You and your
Mother and You and your Father at Q = .45 at 0.01 significant level. However, there was
a negative and low correlation between You and your Mother and DASS at Q = -. 21 at
0.05 significant level. A negative and low correlation was found between You and your
Regression Analysis
The second question the study investigated was: Does the child's attitude toward
his/her mother/father relate to parents' verbal abuse? A multiple regression with stepwise
was used to determine what variables contribute to the explanation of the (dependent
Table 3
Summary of Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting the Level of Anger 1 {state-
anger)
Variable
Note. Multiple R =. 59, R Sguare = .35, Adjusted R Sguare = .33. Stepwise method was
used. B = coefficient which tells us the slope predicted (steepness) of the line.
SE = the regression coefficient multiplied by the standard deviation of the Independent
variables (VB= Verbal Abuse, ATM= Child Attitude toward Mother, Anger 2 = anger-
trait, DASS= Depression, Anxiety, and Stress) divided by the standard deviation of the
(Anger 1 = anger-state) measure. Beta = A beta is a regression coefficient that has been
standardized, can be thought of as indicators of the relative importance of individual
variables within a regression equation.
Table 3 shows that Verbal Abuse and Child Attitude toward Mother, Anger 2
(trait-anger), and DASS were the predictors for the level of Anger 1 (state-anger). The R
square of .35 indicated low linear correlations between the criterion variable Anger 1
(state-anger) and the predictors such as Verbal Abuse and Child Attitude toward Mother,
The other independent variables such as the You and your Mother/ Father (see
Appendix C), Anger 3 (anger-expression), Child Attitude toward Father, and Self-Esteem
were not in the equation as predictors describing the linear correlation, therefore, these
The third question the study investigated was: Are there gender differences in
parents' verbal abuse? The researcher conducted an independent simple t-Test to examine
gender differences in each variable. The dependent variables included Verbal Abuse,
Anger, DASS, You and your Father/Mother, Child Attitude toward Father/Mother, and
Self-esteem. A significant difference was found in the relationship between mother and
child (t -value= 2.78, p < 0.05). Males had relationships that were more negative with
their mothers than females. (The mean for males was = 98.5862, and mean for females
was = 93.2472).
Furthermore, to answer the study second question, which was, does the child's
attitude toward his/her mother/father relate to verbal abuse? A significant difference was
found in child attitude toward mother (t-value = 2.16, 12< 0.05). Females had a more
positive attitude toward their mothers than males (mean for females was = 62.8764, and
One-Way-ANOVA
The fourth question this study investigated was: Does the family configuration
(i.e., intact family, lived with mother/father, foster family, and other step father/mother)
relate to parents' verbal abuse? A one-way ANOV A analysis based on the Bonferroni
test was used in this step using the three variables (You and your Mother, You and your
Father, and Verbal Abuse) based on family configuration variable (see Appendix C).
Table 4
Note. ** Means significance at 0.05 level. Bonferroni was used with significance level
0.05. df =Degrees of freedom, SS = Sum of Squares, MS= Means of Squares.
Single means lived with mother/father; Intact means intact family; Other means step
family.
mother, intact, and other stepfamily) and parents' verbal abuse (Part 1, see Appendix C) Q
configuration (Intact and Single family) and the You and your Father (Part 2, see
between (Intact and Other Step family) and the You and Your Mother (Part 3, see
Also, there was a significant difference between groups (e.g., Intact family and
other Step family) and DASS (Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales) n =. 0441 at the
group to determine whether there were differences between verbally abused groups and
53
group to determine whether there were differences between verbally abused groups and
correlations between parents' verbal abuse and other types of abuse (physical, sexual). In
addition, no correlation was found between parents' verbal abuse and parents' problems
with alcohol. An interpretation of the data described above is presented in the next
chapter.
54
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
This chapter will first provide a discussion of the results of the study, next state
the limitations and strengths of the study, discuss some implications of the study, and
finally discuss some directions for future research. The primary objective of this study
was to investigate the relationship between parents' verbal abuse and depression, anxiety,
stress, anger, self- esteem, and relations with either one or both parents for college
students. The reliability coefficients of the scales used in this study showed that they
Research Questions
This finding is consistent with the studies that have demonstrated increased depression,
anxiety, stress, and low self-esteem among emotionally abused children. The current
1. What are the Relationships between Parents' Verbal Abuse and the Affective
The hypothesis for the question was that the more participants experienced
parents' verbal abuse, the higher will be their level of depression, anxiety, stress, anger,
Parental verbal abuse is related to depression, anxiety, and stress as the findings
in this study indicated (see Table 2). Verbally abused participants who experienced
constant belittling may actually be depressed but not know it because they may not
always seem sad. It is more likely that the participants' unpleasant surroundings may
contribute to them being depressed. Depression can lead to anxiety and stress as the
because of frequent yelling or degrading. It is also possible that, anxious and stressed
children may be quiet, compliant, and eager to please. Their stress may be unseen by
them or their parents. In addition, verbally abused participants may have feelings oflow
self-esteem.
Furthermore, both genders who experienced frequent parental verbal abuse as the
findings indicated are more anxious than those who were not abused. Parents'
expectations and demands may convey a message to their children that contributes to the
children's feelings of depression, anxiety, and stress in later life. Children may believe
everything that their parents express to them, and consequently they will believe that they
are worthless. They may also blame themselves, feel angry, frustrated, scared, or afraid,
This study findings are consistent with these studies: Hart and Brassard, 1987;
Moore, 1991; Silvem et al., 1995; Stone, 1993. These studies explored the effects of
The study found a negative and low correlation between self-esteem and parents'
verbal abuse (see Table 2). One interpretation was that constant rejection can seriously
"clumsy," and "lazy" had negative effects on how participants perceived themselves.
Constant belittling and degrading could make the participants feel unwanted and not
worthwhile.
Many children and adults may simply accept the blame and think that they are
the problem and that they are bad or worthless. Emotionally abused children may learn at
an early age that their emotional needs will not be met, which can result in them feeling
This finding is consistent with the following studies: Biller and Solomon, 1986;
The data showed a negative and low correlation between anger expression and
parents' verbal abuse (see Table 2). Participants might not have been sure when it was
appropriate to be angry, and they might not have known the reasons for their anger. In
addition, it is possible that they do not want to blame their parents for causing their anger.
Instead, they might have been blaming themselves for being bad.
Verbally abused participants might have been depressed because they felt helpless
and do not know how to express their anger in a way that would not get them in trouble
with their parents or express their feelings in a healthy way. In addition, through verbal
57
abusive parent(s) may convey the message that showing emotions, especially anger is
wrong, shameful, and weak. Therefore, participants might internalize their anger and then
see themselves as worthless and deserving of the abuse. This finding is consistent with
In summary, the participants in this study, who were verbally abused by their
parent (s), were found to show more depression, a high level of anxiety, stress, and anger,
verbally abused children grow into depressed, anxious adults. They may have normal
physical development, but the emotional development will most likely be affected by
However, it is interesting that the study participants' answers showed that they did
not think that they were abused, for several reasons. Participants objected to the
definition of the word "abuse"on the questionnaire because of the stigma attached to the
word "abuse." They thought that it was normal to hear words such as "dummy," or "fool"
(e.g.," I don't think my father calling me names was abuse," and "It is a normal thing to
Secondly, the participants did not want to blame their parent(s). Instead, they tried
to give excuses about their verbally abusive parent (s)--(i.e.," after all we lived in a
farm," "my mother have too much to do," "my father was angry," and "my mom did not
mean what she said to me"). Therefore, they may have internalized their feelings and
knowledge.
58
Thirdly, the participants might not have known that they were depressed because
of their parents' abuse. Some of the participants' remarks were (e.g., "I do not think my
Verbal Abuse?
The finding indicated that males exhibited a more negative attitude toward their
mothers than females. Also, the anger variable used as the criterion to predict parents'
verbal abuse showed that it would lead to a high levels of depression, anxiety, stress, and
have a negative child attitude toward parents, especially toward the mother (see t-Test).
There was a moderate correlation between child attitude toward both parents, which was
associated with general anger, depression, anxiety, and stress in males and females.
It is possible that mothers are too protective and more possessive with their sons
than their daughters. In addition, differential societal treatments of boys and girls may
account for this mistreatment of sons. Boys may have more feelings of aggression
towards mothers as a proof of their masculinity and because of the stigma in any society
that the males are more powerful than females even if the reference is to their mothers.
Males of this generation may feel weakened being under their mothers' strong
personality and harsh treatment of them. Other pressures like the stress of a single parent
(mother) provider for her family might have been contributed to participants'
maltreatment.
Boys who experienced verbal abuse from their mother may have become
attached to their fathers, especially if the father was absent. They may have resented
59
their mothers because the fathers were not involved with the responsibilities of rearing
children; therefore, the mothers might have felt more pressure and become verbally
abusive.
Constant criticism could make the verbally abused participant think this is normal
parental behavior. Verbally abused participants might have confused feelings about their
the likelihood of the participant becoming anxious and insecure in his/her attachment to
both parents. The finding of this question was consistent with the following studies:
Biller and Solomon 1986; Sheerer, 1997; Smith, 1995; Tomison and Tucci, 1997.
Based on the data for this study, there were gender differences in the relationship
between mothers and males participants. The results indicated that males tended to have
more negative relationships with their mothers than females (see t-Test).
It is possible that abuse affects boys and girls in different ways. Because of the
stigma in any society for males to be tough, boys may internalize the abuse because they
are not supposed to show their affection. Consequently, they (males) might be angry and
depressed throughout their lives. Mothers might be stressed out from everyday life
problems so they (mothers) might not have time to spend with their sons, especially
during the early years in their sons lives. This in part could alienate sons from their
mothers.
It is possible that boys living in single mother homes might not only experience
the instability of family disruption but, on the average, they also received less supervision
60
or time with parents than children living in two parent homes. Perhaps maltreating
mothers lacked an understanding of their child's behavior and the complexities of parent-
child relationships. Perhaps these mothers may have also experienced high levels of
stress, were socially isolated or unsupported, and perhaps had a history of inadequate care
It may be that boys are the opposite sex of their mothers and developing their
masculinity, this may separate mothers and sons. Therefore, mothers widen the gap by
making stereotyped assumptions about the nature of masculinity. They might expect their
boys to be typical men. Mothers might not understand masculinity. Because the boy child
is the opposite sex, it might be difficult for these mothers to adopt another perspective.
more likely than an easy child to be the target of mothers' coercive, punitive discipline.
Moreover, it is more likely that the mother is young, immature, depressed, antisocial,
stressed, or has few available social supports. Therefore, their boys might have long-term
throughout.
It is possible that boys tend to internalize their emotions. It is not surprising that
they can be twice as affected by their mothers' maltreatment as girls as the results in this
This finding is consistent with the following studies: Biller and Solomon, 1986;
4. Does the Family Configuration (i.e., intact family, lived with mother/father,
The findings in this study showed that verbal abuse is even more likely to appear
in different families' configuration (see Table 4). Participants living in intact families who
experienced parental verbal abuse may be unaware that the parents' behavior is abnormal
because they have no comparison. Thus, participants of parents' verbal abuse may not
even mention it to anyone for years because they think it was not abuse. Furthermore, it
is possible that many parents from intact families are not aware of the intense damage
they do when they humiliate, put down, judge, belittle, ridicule, or criticize their children.
Parents from intact and single families may not know that their negative words
have powerful, deep, and long-lasting effects on their children. The parents could be
raising their children much like they were raised themselves. This explains why the
children do not consider it abuse because there is not a role model to imitate.
developmental stages and may be unaware of children's needs. In addition, fathers might
not recognize the importance of emotional nurturing as a need of the child. It possible
that these fathers (parents) came from families where affection was not shown or even
discouraged. Some signs of verbally abusive parents such as he /she may not include the
child in the family circle; he/she might not allow the child to have an active part in the
family decision making; he/ she might seldom speak to the child in an easy way; and may
62
not acknowledge or reinforce any good behavior or positive actions (lwaniec, 1995;
Smith, 1995).
indicate in this study (see Table 4). Perhaps participants view their parents' as role
models and their (parents') word counts to the child. Parents' derogatory comments may
become the basis for children's sense of self-worth and self-esteem. Both parents may
bring with them the legacies of their own childhood and the pain that it still causes in
adult life. In stepfamilies, children who have had a stepfather/mother are at greater risk of
solely responsible for any maltreatment. It could be, because the mothers have the major
role in the care of their children. The study finding is consistent with Creighton and
Strengths
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between parental verbal
abuse and the participants' emotional development (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress, self-
esteem, and anger). The study results show that parental verbal abuse has both short- and
long-term effects on the participants' emotional development. It was important to see the
consequences.
63
The participants may have high levels of depression, anxiety, stress, and
unexpressed anger. In addition, the participants may have a negative attitude toward their
parent(s) as the findings of this study indicate. In addition, the bond between parent-child
may have been damaged. It is important to look at the effects of parents' verbal abuse to
recognize the negative consequences and how damaging verbal abuse can be for healthy
development. This study illustrates the negative effects of parental verbal abuse as well as
highlighting how parent-child relationships can impact the psychological well being of
the child.
Limitations
As in all studies, this study, which investigated verbal abuse and its effects on
children, has a few limitations. The study relied solely on the use of questionnaires to
gather data. Other methods, such as interviews, would be beneficial to enlighten and
allow the researcher and the participant(s) to analyze more carefully the world of verbally
abused families, and to see how the participants view the effects of their parents' verbal
would have been better if the participants were first screened to assess the degree of
verbal abuse in their lives. Those with a high degree of verbal abuse could have been
chosen as participants.
Conclusion
Parents' verbal abuse poses risks. It can teach the child that verbal abuse against
other members of one's family is acceptable. Eventually, parents who use verbal abuse
64
are themselves likely to become victims. When verbally abused children become adults,
they may be more likely to engage in verbal abuse against their spouses and children.
constant belittling might have a labeling effect because some children will internalize the
identification of themselves as "no good" or whatever term the parent tends to favor.
Parents may be emotionally abusing their child without even realizing it.
Constant criticism, verbal put-downs, and physical threats are all forms of emotional
abuse. Such comments as "you're fat" can seriously damage the development of the
child's self-esteem. Some parents withhold love and affection from a child or make it
conditional based on certain behavior or achievements. Other parents simply do not make
enough time for their kids. Such neglect is especially sad because otherwise good-
intentioned parents may not even realize the damage they may be causing.
The most harmful effect of verbal abuse is that children who are raised in an
abusive home often grow up in a constant state of depression and are unable to mature
through the normal stages of child development. They grow up thinking that what they
response to prevent and treat it successfully. People must be able to identify and report
cases of verbal abuse and be involved in their community's prevention efforts. Therefore,
no one agency or individual has the necessary knowledge, skills, and resources to prevent
and treat child maltreatment. Together, the community can make a difference in the lives
Because of the difficulty in defining emotional abuse, we must be very careful not
to lump all negative parental attitudes and/or actions under the category of emotional
maltreatment. Even the best of parents have occasions when they have momentarily "lost
control" and said hurtful things to their children, ignored them during a time when
Although the visible signs of emotional abuse can be hard to find, this type of
abuse leaves hidden scars that manifest themselves in numerous behavioral ways. Poor
self-esteem, angry acts, depression, and poor development of basic skills can all be
possible results of emotional maltreatment. Consequently, verbal abuse and its hidden
It is suggested that verbal abuse has negative and severe impacts on children's
in any community not to promote and encourage verbal abuse. If verbal abuse is
encouraged, the victims of verbal abuse will blame themselves for any assaults they have
suffered, internalizing the message of the abusers (parents) and believing that they
Furthermore, the need to define verbal abuse and its connection between parents'
behaviors and the effects on children's emotional development is very important. It is also
important to understand the severity of verbal abuse on children later in life. However,
It is apparent from the literature presented that researchers have yet to fully
Similarly, child protective services should document cases where verbal abuse is
occurring in different types of families. Having such data available would increase
Gough (1993) believed that such research would provide important information
on verbal abuse outcomes. It could lead to a better understanding of the extent of verbal
abuse on children later in life. Moreover, it would provide information for the legal
maltreatment and help clarify the definition of verbal abuse for intervention programs.
67
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Name: Date:
Please read each statement and circle a number 0, 1, 2 or 3 which indicates how much
the statement applied to you over the past week. There 'are no right or wrong answers.
Do not spend too much time on any statement.
Directions:
On the other side of this form, you will find a list of statements about feelings. If a
statement describes how you usually feel, circle the appropriate number, if a statement
does not describe how you usually feel, circle the appropriate number. Remember there
are not right or wrong answers.
l---"'(1"--)-L-ik_e_M_e_ _ _..,..l_(2_)_U_nl_ik_e_M_e_ _ ___,
Part 1 Directions
Below are statements about you and your parents. Please read each carefully and circle
the response that best describes your relationship with your parents. Please be honest in
your responses. They will be kept strictly confidential.
Verbal Abuse
Name two specific incidents that you remember vividly in which you were verbally
abused by either or either your parents or caretaker (s).
I. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Please put a check mark by the category that best describes the living arrangement and
the people with whom you lived during your childhood.
80
------Intact family
------One-parent family
------Orphan home
------Other (please specify)---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Please indicate which of the following best represents the frequency when your parents'
verbally abuse you:
----------All the time
----------Some of the time
----------Rarely
Please indicate if you have been revictimized in adult relationships. (Check all that apply)
-----Physically
-----Sexually
-----Emotionally (verbally)
----Other (please specify)
Part 2 Directions
Gender:- - - - Age_ __
Below are statements about you and your father (or primary caretaker). Please read each
carefully and circle the response that best describes your relationship with your father.
Please be honest in your responses. They will be kept strictly confidential.
81
Part 3 Directions
Gender: Age
Below are statements about you and your mother (or primary caretaker). Please read each
carefully and circle the response that best describes your relationship with your mother.
Please be honest in your responses. They will be kept strictly confidential.
Age _ _ Female/Male
This questionnaire is designed to measure the degree of contentment you have in your
relationship with your father. It is not a test, so there are no right or wrong answers.
Answer each item as carefully and accurately as you can by placing a number beside each
one as follows:
1. Rarely or none of the time
2. A little of time
3. Sometime
4. Good part of the time
5. Most or all of the time.
This questionnaire is designed to measure the degree of contentment you have in your
relationship with your mother. It is not a test, so there are no right or wrong answers.
Answer each item as carefully and accurately as you can by placing a number beside each
one as follows:
1. Rarely or none of the time
2. A little of time
3. Sometime
4. Good part of the time
5. Most or all of the time.
1. My mother gets on my nerves.
2. I get along well with my mother.
3. I feel that I can really trust my mother.
4. I dislike my mother.
5. My mother's behavior embarrasses me.
6. My mother is too demanding.
7. I wish I had a different mother.
8. I really enjoy my mother.
9. My mother puts too many limits on me.
10. My mother interferes with my activities.
11. I resent my mother.
12. I think my mother is terrific.
13. I hate my mother.
14. My mother is very patient with me.
15. I really like my mother.
16. I like being with my mother.
17. I feel like I do not love my mother.
18. My mother is very irritating.
19. I feel very angry toward my mother.
20. I feel violent toward my mother.
21. I feel proud of my mother.
22. I wish my mother was more like others I know.
23. My mother does not understand me.
24. I can really depend on my mother.
25. I feel ashamed ofmy mother.
Part 1 Directions
A number of statements that people use to describe themselves are given below.
Read each statement and then fill in the circle with the number, which indicates how, you
feel right now. Remember that there are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too
much time on any one statement, but give the answer, which seems to best describe your
resent feelin s. ·
Fill in(l) for Not at all Fill in (3) for Moderately so
Fill in (2) for Somewhat Fill in (4) for Ve much so
Part 2 Directions
A number of statements that people use to describe themselves are given below.
Read each statement and then fill in the circle with the number, which indicates how you
feel generally feel. Remember that there are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too
much time on any one statement, but give the answer, which seems to best describe how
you generally feel.
Fill in (1) for Almost never Fill in (3) for Often
Fill in 2) for Sometimes Fill in (4) for Almost alwa s
1. I am quick tempered. 1 2 3 4
2.1 have a fiery temper. 1 2 3 4
3. I am a hotheaded person. 1 2 3 4
4. I get angry when I'm slowed down
by others' mistakes. 1 2 3 4
5. I feel annoyed when I am not given recognition
for doing good work. 1 2 3 4
87
Part 3 Directions
Everyone feels angry or furious from time to time, but people differ in the ways
that they react when they are angry. A number of statements are listed below which
people use to describe their reactions when they feel angry or furious. Read each
statement and then fill in the circle with the number, which indicates how often you
generally react or behave in the manner, described when you are feeling angry or furious.
Remember that there are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any
one statement.
Fill in (l)Almost Never Fill in(3) for Often
1. I control my temper. 1 2 3 4
2. I express my anger. 1 2 3 4
3. I keep things in. 1 2 3 4
4. I am patient with others. 1 2 3 4
5. I pout or sulk. 1 2 3 4
6. I withdraw from people. 1 2 3 4
7. I make sarcastic remarks to others. 1 2 3 4
8. I keep my cool. 1 2 3 4
9. I do things like slam doors. 1 2 3 4
10. I boil inside, but I do not show it. 1 2 3 4
11. I control my behavior. 1 2 3 4
12. I argue with others. 1 2 3 4
13. I tend to harbor grudges that
I do not tell anyone about. 1 2 3 4
14. I strike out at whatever infuriates me. 1 2 3 4
15. I can stop myself from losing
my temper. 1 2 3 4
16. I am secretly quite critical of others. 1 2 3 4
88