Fossil Fuels

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ENVE/CVIL 8900 42

Fundamentals of Environmental Eng.


Fossil Fuels

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19.1 World Consumption
 Most of the total
consumption is fossil fuels

Include wind, 38
solar and
biomass
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23
Total = 87%

Raven, 6th ed. 3


Coal, oil and
natural gas
accounts for 67%

Canada is #1
ranked when
comparing
hydroelectric Solar, wind
and biomass

Berg 4
19.1 World Consumption
Per capita

450
350

Berg
Why larger than the US? – colder and longer distances
 Consumption/p in developed countries is
higher but total is reaching a plateau
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Calculate energy fraction for:
Fossil fuel industry = 0.42 * 0.14 = 0.06 = 6%

Heating & cooling buildings = 0.33 * 0.64 = 21%


Used as heat

Motor vehicles = 0.25 * 0.74 = 18.5%

Hot water = 0.33 * 0.24 = 8%

Raven, 6th ed.

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19.2 Fossil Fuels
 ~300M years ago: deposition of plants and
animals into mud so decay process stopped
 over time, O depleted → hydrocarbons
- natural gas
- oil
- coal
 the process takes millions of years and we are
not making new oil as fast as we’re using it
 therefore fossil fuels are a _non-renewable_
resource

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The energy in fossil fuels comes from plants
and animals that lived approximately 300
million years ago. Therefore the ultimate
energy source of fossil fuels is _the sun_.

1. the heat of the Earth


2. the sun - WHY????
3. gravity
4. nuclear reactions occurring deep within
the Earth’s crust

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19.2.1 Climate Change

More GHG more


atmospheric heating

Berg 9
19.2.1 Climate Change

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11
Visible light – 400 to 700 um

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19.2.1 Climate Change
CO2, H2O
absorb IR
radiation

Kenz, J.H. (1984)


Energy Conversion
and Utilization.
Allyn & Bacon Publ.

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19.2.1 Climate Change
 If it were not for greenhouse effect, the
average temperature on Earth would be
-18˚C and there would be no water-based
life on earth (Box 4.2 Mihelcic)

E in = E out

 - Boltzmann constant
5.67 x 10-8 W /m2/K4
T = 255K
= - 18 oC
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Energy flux absorbed by the Earth = Radiation emitted by the Earth

239.7 W/m2 = constant x T4

T = 255 K

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19.2.1 Climate Change

Energy
balance on
the clouds
does not
work
154 160
W/m2 W/m2

Over time reach a ‘quasi equilibrium state

Klingenberg, H. (1996) Automobile Emission Testing: Measurement of Regulated and Unregulated Exhaust
Gas Components, Exhaust Emission Testing. Heidleburg, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidleburg. 16
4.1 Climate Change

Measure the
quantity of
CO2 trapped
in the ice to
establish
trend

Berg17
• abscissa : 0 to 600,000 years
before present
2.5 Carbon Cycle
• ordinate: 0 to 600 ppm CO2
• blue line: CO2 in ice core
bubbles
• grey line: temperature at time
bubble trapped

CO2

Temperature

Gore, A. (2006) An Inconvenient Truth. Rodale, Inc., Emmaus, PA. 18


19.2.1 Climate Change
 [CO2] is higher now
than last 650,000
years
 Is there a
correlation between
[CO2] and
temperature?
 CO2 change lags
behind the
temperature change
by about 800 years.
Does this fit the
theory?
Gore, A. (2006) An Inconvenient Truth. Rodale, Inc., Emmaus, PA. 19
2.1 Climate Change
 Various substances in the atmosphere
affect radiative “forcing”:
◦ greenhouse gases (GHGs)
◦ water vapour, clouds
◦ particles
◦ albedo
 Radiation also affected by solar output
Some would argue that we do not understand the effects
very clearly and cannot make firm conclusions.

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19.2.1 Climate Change
SO2 is emitted – what is the effect?

Volcanoes – emit particulates – decrease energy transfer from sun


Net effect is cooling of the Earth’s surface. Berg21
19.2.1 Climate Change

As T increases – ice melts


Result in increasing ocean levels

Berg22
19.2.1 Climate Change

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPCC WGI AR5 (2013) Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Fifth
Assessment Report, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis,
Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
UNEP. 23
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Albedo
The proportion of the incident light or radiation that is reflected by a surface,
typically that of a planet.

Human activities cause significant changes in long-lived gases, ozone,


water vapour, surface albedo, aerosols and contrails.

What is radiative forcing? The influence of a factor that can cause climate
change, such as a greenhouse gas, is often evaluated in terms of its radiative
forcing.

Radiative forcing is a measure of how the energy balance of the Earth-


atmosphere system is influenced when factors that affect climate are altered.

In climate science, radiative forcing or climate forcing, is defined as the


difference of insolation (sunlight) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated
back to space. Typically, radiative forcing is quantified in units of watts per
square meter of the Earth's surface. A positive forcing (more incoming
energy) warms the system, while negative forcing (more outgoing energy)
cools it. Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the
concentrations of radiatively active gases, commonly known as greenhouse
gases and aerosols

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19.2.1 Climate Change
 Possible effects:
◦ Rising sea levels
◦ Change in weather patterns
 droughts, floods, severe storms, hurricanes
◦ Invasive species in temperate areas
 pests, vectors
◦ Changes in range and survival of native
species
◦ Acidification of oceans

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19.2.1 Climate Change
 Adaptation (must do, regardless of cause)
◦ Design infrastructure for greater variation in
weather
◦ Develop agriculture for drought, heat, pest
resistance
◦ Protect coastal areas

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19.2.1 Climate Change
 Mitigation
◦ Reduce burning fossil fuels
(other benefits, regardless of effect on climate)
 reduce local pollution
 alternatives may be more healthy
 less dependence on importing energy
 cost savings to consumer
◦ Increase carbon sinks
 forests (again, other benefits regardless of GHGs)
 CO2 capture

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19.2.2 Coal
 mainly used to
produce electricity,
steel
 limited use for
cooking, heating

Berg, Figure 11.3

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19.2.2 Coal
 resource spread
among many
countries, mainly in
Northern
Hemisphere
 reserves enough to
last 200 years at
present rate of
consumption
Berg

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19.2.2 Coal
 use began in mid-1700s, soon replaced
wood
 various grades
Raven, 6th ed.

 S content is important because low-sulfur


coal reduces the need for equipment
APC = air pollution control 31
19.2.2 Coal
e.g. A utility wants to switch from high sulfur coal
to anthracite or sub-bituminous. Which has
more energy/$?

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19.2.2 Coal
 Removed from
ground by:
◦ sub-surface
mining (40%)
◦ surface mining
(60%)
 When deposit is
less than 30 m
deep

Berg 34
Two basic ways to mine coal include surface and
subsurface mining.

Surface mining involves removing the overburden (earth


and rock covering the coal) with heavy earth moving
equipment and scooping out the coal. Presently, after
mining is completed in surface mines, they reclaim the
area by reestablishing vegetation and plant life.

The subsurface method extracts coal from seams of


coal within sedimentary strata. The coal is reached by
drilling two openings into the coal bed to transport
workers and equipment and to send coal to the surface.
Both openings serve to circulate air in the mine. This is a
difficult way of extracting coal, especially prior to
equipment specializing in coal extraction.
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19.2.2 Coal
Environmental Effects:
 destruction of habitat in surface mining
 occupational health & safety issues
◦ mine collapses, explosions (methane)
◦ black lung disease
 burning seams
 adds CO2 to atmosphere
 S in coal becomes SO2 →H2SO4
◦ combustion creates NO →HNO3
 trace metals in coal released (e.g. Hg) 36
19.2.2 Coal
Making Coal Cleaner:
1. desulfurize flue gas:
SO2 + CaO + ½O2 → CaSO4
2. fluidized bed combustion
◦ also produces CaSO4, but operates at lower temp,
so less NO produced
◦ produces more heat/kg coal than conventional
3. coal gasification
4. CO2 sequestration
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Why add limestone?
19.2.2 Coal

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Berg
Which country has the largest
electricity production from
renewable energy sources?
1. Canada
2. USA
3. China
4. Brazil

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Which country has the largest
electricity production from
renewable energy sources?
1. Canada
2. USA
3. China
4. Brazil

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Which country has the largest
electricity production from
renewable energy sources?
1. Canada
2. USA
3. China
4. Brazil

National Geographic,
June 2011, p 120. 41
National Geographic,
June 2011, p 120. 42
National
Geographic,
June 2011,
p 126.

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19.2.3 Oil
 crude oil refined into
products
 burns cleaner than coal
 easier to transport than
coal
Crude can be ‘sour’ – high S content

Crude can be ‘sweet’ – low S content

‘Sour’ and ‘sweet crude’ – depend on


location – Nigeria and Venezuela

Berg 44
19.2.3 Oil

Berg

 main consumers (NA, EU) are not main


producers (Persian Gulf) 45
19.2.3 Oil
 Canada (2007):
◦ extraction = 3.4 Mbbl/d
◦ consumption = 2.3 Mbbl/d
*(3.2 and 1.8 Mbbl/d according to Canadian Geographic,
June 2013)
◦ ~0.3 Mbbl/d from offshore Newfoundland

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19.2.3 Oil

Berg 47
19.2.3 Oil

Berg
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19.2.3 Oil
Supplies:
 oil “production” in US peaked in 1970s
 80% of oil comes from fields discovered
before 1973
 Peak Oil – oil withdrawn at highest rate
◦ some say we have already reached it
◦ optimists predict it will occur in 2035
 US will import 100% of its oil by 2015

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19.2.3 Oil
Supplies:
 synthetic fuels (synfuels) are made from
sources other than crude oil
◦ tar sands contain viscous bitumen which must
be heated to extract and hydrogenated to get
gasoline
◦ large reserve (1.7 Tbbl), but energy intensive
to extract
◦ 1.2 Mbbl/d extracted

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19.2.3 Oil
EROI
= Energy Return on Investment
= (useful energy of product)
(energy used to find, extract and refine
product)

 for US oil, the EROI was 100:1 in the


1930s and 17:1 now*
 tar sands oil is 5:1*
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*Homer-Dixon, T. (2006) The Upside of Down. Random House of Canada Ltd., Toronto.
19.2.3 Oil
Environmental Effects:
 disruption of habitat by exploring, drilling,
pipelines
 Tar sands requires 2000-4000 L water per
L oil extracted
 burning oil produces CO2, CO, NO
 oil tanker spills (Exxon Valdez 1986)
 offshore platform spills (Deepwater
Horizon 2010)
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19.2.3 Oil
Environmental Effects

National Geographic, Oct. 2010


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19.2.4 Natural Gas
 mainly methane (CH4), some ethane,
propane, butane
 clean burning (no PM, HC)
 used mainly for heating, electricity
generation (low energy density)
 cogeneration
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the
use of a heat engine or power station to simultaneously
generate electricity and useful heat

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19.2.4 Natural Gas
Environmental Effects:
 disruption of habitat by exploration,
drilling, pipelines
 burning natural gas adds CO2, CO, NO to
atmosphere
 fracking, extracting methane hydrates

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19.2.4 Natural Gas
Does natural gas produce less CO2?
Calculate the energy/kg CO2 for natural
gas, gasoline and anthracite.
Fuel model as LHV (kJ/kg) HHV (kJ/kg)

Natural Gas CH4 50,048 55,536

Gasoline C8H18 44,651 48,119

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The heating value (or energy value or calorific value) of a substance,
usually a fuel or food (see food energy), is the amount of heat released
during the combustion of a specified amount of it
Lower heating value (LHV) of a fuel portion is defined as the amount of heat
evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the case of gaseous fuels) of the
fuel is completely burnt and water vapor leaves with the combustion products
without being condensed.

Higher heating value (HHV) of a fuel portion is defined as the amount of


heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the case of gaseous fuels) of
the fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion cooled to the
normal conditions (with water vapor condensed as a result). The heat
contained in the water vapor must be recovered in the condensation process.

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Proportion of
Concentration total effect
Greenhouse Anthropogenic
change, 1800s - 100-yr GWP* apart from
gas sources
2010 water vapour
(approximate)
fossil fuel
carbon dioxide 280 - 390 ppm burning, 1 60%
deforestation
0.75 - 1.75 agriculture, fuel
methane 25 20%
ppm leakage
halocarbons 0 - 0.7 ppb refrigerants 1100-11,000 14%
agriculture,
nitrous oxide 275 - 310 ppb 298 6%
combustion
15? - 20-30
ozone urban pollution
ppb
•IPCC Third Assessment Report 2001, CO2 Information Analysis Center,
ORNL, 2013.
GWP = Global warming potential
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific
intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations, set up at
the request of member governments.
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Figure. (a) Global annual emissions of anthropogenic GHGs from 1970 to 2004
(b) Share of different anthropogenic GHGs in total emissions in 2004 in terms of
CO2-eq. (c) Share of different sectors in total anthropogenic GHG emissions in
2004 in terms of CO2-eq. (Forestry includes deforestation.)

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A prime energy objective in the context of sustainable
development is to avoid irreversible changes.

For example, events that must be avoided include:


1. greenhouse gas emissions at levels that would
provoke major disruptive changes in the climate
system;
2. sulfur emissions and deposition that surpass the
critical loads at which food production can be
sustained;
3. and total consumption of all easily accessible fossil
fuel resources.

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Which of the following fuels does not
produce CO2 when burned?

1. oil
2. hydrogen
3. coal
4. natural gas

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19.5 Application
Ex.1 A tankless natural gas water heater
heats 5 GPM of 5°C water to 60°C
with 90% efficiency. What is the natural
gas flow rate required to accomplish this?
The HHV of natural gas is 38 MJ/m3.

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