STORAGE DEVICES

RAM

What is RAM (Random Access Memory)?

RAM is a computer's volatile memory which stores data temporarily; once power turned off,
the data which is inside the RAM gets erased. It is also known as primary or temporary
memory. RAM stores the data that is actively being used during the execution of a program
or instructions. During the booting process of a system, the operating system actively uses
RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a program. It speeds up CPU
processing by providing fast data and instruction access.

RAM is actively used for program or instruction execution. Once we start the computer; system
necessary files, programs and operating system files are loaded into the RAM for the smooth
running of the computer. The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking
and the faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly.

How does RAM Work?

RAM consists of a grid of cells, each with a unique address, allowing data to be read or written
in any order, the CPU requests data from RAM, which is delivered at high speed, making it
essential for multitasking and running complex applications.

RAM is the computer's internal memory which stores different types of data and information
as per the requirement. It is also considered as read/write memory. The data access in RAM
is random. This means that we can access any random location in the memory without even
knowing the address of the previous location. Since RAM is a volatile memory hence, a backup
is present in most of the systems in the form of an uninterrupted power supply (UPS).
Moreover, the speed and performance of a system are directly proportional to the size of the
RAM.
Characteristics of RAM
Key Characteristics of RAM are described below −

 Multitasking − RAM does multitasking and fast execution of instructions or programs.

 Prevents system crashes − RAM prevents system crashes and slowdowns during intensive
tasks.
 High-performance − It provides high performance for the execution of gaming and visual
applications, where large amounts of data must be processed swiftly.
 System Support − RAM can perform write and erase operations.
 Additional RAM − To maintain the system’s speed and performance; additional RAM can
be added on.
 Faster data accessing − It facilitates CPU by accessing data quickly to support faster
execution. RAM is faster than SSD.
 Cost − RAM is not costly as compared to SSD.

Types of Random Access Memory

Different types of RAM are categorised in the below image

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

Static RAM is a type of RAM that uses flip-flops for primary storage and is volatile. It is a type
of semiconductor memory. Each bit is stored using bistable latching circuitry, making it
extremely fast so known as cache memory. It is commonly used as a CPU cache and is typically
located in L2 or L3. It stores data in the latch as long as the computer is on. SRAM is more
expensive and requires more power than DRAM. It serves as cache memory in a computer
system. SRAM requires more transistors than DRAM. It is faster than DRAM because of the
latching mechanism. SRAM employs 6 transistors per data bit while DRAM uses one transistor
per bit.
Characteristics of SRAM

Some of the key characteristics of SRAM are as follows −

 SRAM has a memory cell which consists of 6 transistors.

 SRAM consist flip-flop to store data units.
 SRAM is dedicatedly designed for the CPU and works as a cache memory.
 It accesses data in less time; faster than DRAM, and takes very less time to access
data.
 Storing a large amount of data on a single chip is not possible, so more chips are
needed.
 SRAM is expensive.
 It requires a regular power supply to store data.
 SRAM generates more heat.
 Contents remain as it is until power is ON.

Types of SRAM

SRAM can be further classified into the following types −

 Synchronous − Synchronous SRAM works jointly with a clock signal. It reads and writes
in sync with the clock, making it faster and suitable for high-speed applications.
 Asynchronous − Its working is not dependent on the clock signal; it carries out read-and-
write operations once the addresses and control signals are stable.
 Pseudo SRAM − PSRAM is a type of memory that has features of both DRAM and SRAM.
The device uses a DRAM cell but includes an internal refresh circuit, so presenting itself
as SRAM to the external system.
 Non-Volatile SRAM − nvSRAM integrates a small non-volatile memory with SRAM cells to
keep data even when power is off.

Advantages of SRAM

The advantages of SRAM are as follows −

 SRAM is preferred because it is much faster.

 It does not require being refreshed.
 It delivers faster read and write operations.
 It works as a cache memory in CPUs.
 It is less prone to errors and data corruption caused by the refresh process.
 It is very reliable and therefore is used for cache memory.

Disadvantages of SRAM

Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows −

 It is expensive.
 It has a complex cell structure; so the design and layout of SRAM are more complex.
  Due to its volatile nature, overall data is lost when power goes off.
 It has a low storage capacity as compared to DRAM.
 The design is complex and not easy to build or understand.
 It is not Suitable for Large Memory Applications

Overall, speed and reliability make SRAM highly-priced, particularly for applications such as
CPU caches. However, its higher cost and lower density compared to DRAM restrict its use to
smaller, high-performance memory applications.

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

It is another type of RAM used as main memory; it stores data in capacitors for a short period
(a few milliseconds) even when the computer is powered on. Each memory cell is a DRAM
chip that contains one bit of data and is composed of transistors and capacitors. In this
memory controller, the data can be read and then rewritten, constantly updating it. The data
is refreshed regularly to ensure its integrity. The DRAM is less expensive, but it can store
significantly more data. In addition, it is slower and requires less power than SRAM.

However, DRAM is less expensive than SRAM, making it suitable for use as the CPU's main
memory. It is slower than SRAM and can link directly to the CPU bus. A DRAM typically ranges
from 4GB to 16GB for laptops and 1GB to 2GB for smaller devices.

Characteristics of DRAM

Some of the key characteristics of DRAM are as follows −

 It works as a main memory for the system.

 It is made up of capacitors that store the data, thus we need to refresh it multiple times.
 It is inexpensive so DRAM is mostly available in Laptops or PCs today.
 It requires less space and less power.
 It refreshes every millisecond to maintain data consistency.
 It is more power-efficient than SRAM.
 DRAM can store multiple bits on a single chip.

Types of DRAM

DRAM can be further classified into the following types −

 SDRAM − Synchronous with bus clock; general computing.

 DDR SDRAM − it has higher data transfer rates compared to SDRAM.
 DDR2 SDRAM − It has higher speeds, lower power consumption, and enhanced latency.
 GDDR − It is optimized for graphics processing units (GPUs).
 LPDDR − It is dedicatedly designed for mobile and embedded applications.
 RDRAM − Specifically designed for innovative design for specific high-performance
applications.
 EDO DRAM − It allows for faster read cycles by overlapping operations.
Advantages of DRAM

The advantages of DRAM are as follows −

 DRAM has a slower accessing time than SRAM

 Its design is simple, not complex because it consists of only a single transistor.
 It is smaller in size.
 Its cost is low compared to SRAM
 It has high congestion rates.
 It has a large memory space.
 It has a high density that makes it suitable for large memory applications.

Disadvantages of DRAM

Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows −

 It is volatile so continuous refreshing requires keeping data consistent.

 Its manufacturing process is complex.
 It is slower than SRAM.
 It has higher latency compared to SRAM.
 ROM (Read Only Memory)
What is ROM?
ROM is a non-volatile memory that stores data permanently. Advanced ROM data can be
erased and rewritten. The information in ROM can only be accessed, making it perfect for
use in computers as it enables quick access to data without the need for constant data
rewriting. Important data, like BIOS settings and operating system instructions, are stored
in these memories, which are crucial for the proper functioning of your computer. Without
them, your computer would essentially be "brain dead," so they must continue to work
properly at all times!

ROM is an efficient storage method requiring minimal effort and maintenance, capable of
holding instructions and various types of data.

Characteristics of Read Only Memory (ROM)

The primary characteristics of ROM are as follows −

 ROM is Non-volatile in nature.

 Advanced ROM can be rewritten.
 Data or information stored on ROM can be read-only.
 ROM holds its data even when power is turned off.
 The read-only characteristic ensures data stability and integrity.
 ROM utilization occurs during the computer's boot-up procedure.

How does Read Only Memory (ROM) Work?

ROM functions by using memory cells, which are composed of transistors arranged in series
to enable the flow of electrical current when powered. This current passing through the
transistors generates a magnetic field that retains the data in the memory cell until it is
erased by another signal passing through the transistor. The information stored in these
cells cannot be altered or deleted unless directed by an external entity such as a computer
processor or hard drive controller.

Overall, inside the computer, a small but durable battery powers the ROM. Its two essential
components are the decoder and OR logic gates. Binary input from the ROM is processed by
the decoder, which then produces the decimal equivalent as output. The decimal output of
the decoder is used as the input for the OR gates in the ROM.

ROM is akin to an array of disks. The system can be activated and deactivated using a grid
of rows and columns. Each element of the array is assigned to a specific memory element on
the ROM. A diode is used to connect the relevant components. When a request is sent, the
address provided is used to locate the specific memory location. The value extracted from
the ROM chip must match the value in the array's selected element.
Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Based on its characteristics and uses, ROM is broadly classified into four different types −

1. MROM (Masked Read-Only Memory)

MROM stands for Masked Read-Only Memory. This memory device is no longer used
nowadays due to obsolescence. Manufacturers are using this memory to store software and
information during the manufacturing process. Therefore, it is impossible to alter,
reprogram, or erase this type of pre-programmed chip later.

Applications of MROM

It is most widely used in Network Operating Systems and Server Operating Systems.

2. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. Generally, it’s a blank memory chip. It
can be programmed during manufacturing and cannot be changed or erased. A PROM
programmer or PROM burner is used to write information to a PROM. The process of
programming a PROM chip is commonly known as "PROM Burning." Once programmed, the
chip's content cannot be changed. As a result, it is also known as a one-time programmable
device.

Applications of PROM

It is most widely used in Computer Bios, TV Remote, Video game consoles and nowadays a
day used in Mobile Phones.

3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It can be programmed and
later erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light. After being erased, the EPROM can be
reprogrammed. EPROM is a type of read-only memory chip that may erase previously
programmed data. High voltage can be used to program the programmable read-only
memory to write data, which is then retained until exposed to ultraviolet light for 10 minutes
or more.

Applications of EPROM

It is most widely used in Video cards, Memory sticks, BIOS chips, and Modem.

4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory)
EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is an
advanced type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed electrically. This operation can
be repeated indefinitely, and the computer system can do it while running. The EEPROM
allows users to program and erase any desired spot. It is erased byte by byte rather than
the full chip. As a result, reprogramming is flexible and takes less time to complete the
process.

Applications of EEPROM

It is most widely used in Bios Chip and Microcontrollers for Smart Cards.

5. Flash Memory
It is a type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks rather than one byte
at a time which allows for faster and more efficient operations. It is widely employed as
storage in modern devices such as USB drives, memory cards, and SSDs. A modern variant
of EEPROM is flash memory. With its newer designs and high endurance, it may be erased
and rewritten faster than typical EEPROMs.

Applications of Flash Memory

It is most widely used in storage devices like USB drives, memory cards, and SSDs.

Advantages of Using (Read Only Memory) ROM

The primary advantages of ROM are as follows −

 It is non-volatile and less expensive than RAM.

 Its circuit design is simple as compared to RAM.
 No need to refresh it.
 ROM provides fast data access.
 It is reliable.
 Data remains intact and uncorrupted.
 It maintains data integrity and security.

Applications of Read Only Memory (ROM)

There are various applications of ROM. Some of those applications are as follows −

 Supports the Booting Process − It supports the booting process of the computer and loads
the operating system.
 Input/output (I/O) Tasks − ROM performs large I/O tasks.
 Stores Data − ROM stores data and updates firmware software.
 Embedded Systems − ROMs are most widely used in microwaves, washing machines, and
related appliances where firmware controls operations.
 Consumer Electronics − It is used in modern smartphones for storing bootloaders and
firmware.
 Computer BIOS − It provides support for basic Input / Output System (BIOS) in PCs.

ROM is an essential memory device in different electronic systems due to its impact use like
reliability, security, and cost-effectiveness.
RAM Vs. ROM
The primary difference between RAM and ROM are as −

RAM ROM

It stands for Random Access Memory It stands for Read-only Memory

It is more expensive than ROM It is less expensive than RAM

Its speed is high Its speed is low

Temporary storage for data and programs Permanent storage for data and programs

Its storage capacity is high compared to ROM Its storage capacity is low compared to the RAM

It can perform Read, Modify and Delete operations It performs only Read operations

It performs processing on current instructions It performs Bootstrap processing

RAM is a fast ROM is slow

Probably used in the CPU cache and primary memory Probably used in firmware and micro-controllers

It is volatile It is not volatile

 Cache Memory
What is Cache Memory?
Memory that is smaller and faster than RAM is called cache memory. It is a volatile memory
fixed closer to the CPU to provide high-speed data access to the processor and stores
frequently used computer programs, applications and data. Generally a cache memory fixes
between processor and Random Access Memory.

What does Cache Memory Look Alike?

Cache memory's physical structure can be understood using the below images.

It saves data and instructions that are used a lot so that processing goes faster.

Why Cache Memory is Important?

Cache memory is much faster than main memory, thus the CPU can access data quickly
used in execution; cache memory helps to get full utilisation of the CPU. It generally fixes
closer to the CPU to communicate with CPU and RAM. Cache memory increases the system's
overall performance and efficiency. It reduces the latency that the CPU experiences when
retrieving data from main memory.

How does Cache Memory Work?

The data in a cache is typically stored in hardware with immediate access, like RAM. When a
user retrieves data, it checks the caching first. If the data is located in the cache, it is called
a cache hit. The proportion of attempts that provide a cache hit is known as the cache hit
rate or ratio. Data that is not located in the cache is taken from the main memory and put
into the cache. This is known as a cache miss. How this is accomplished and what
information is expelled from the cache to create space for new data is determined by the
caching algorithms, cache mechanisms, and system regulations.

Applications of Cache Memory

The primary applications of Cache Memory are as follows −

 Cache stores temporary files; so it is most widely used in the CPU.

 Different programs and software use their cache.
 A web browser has a cache that retains information.
 Caches are utilised by the operating system.
 It stores frequently accessed data which makes data access fast if a user re-accesses
it.

Advantages of Cache Memory

Some key advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Faster Access − It fixes closer to CPU so access data very fast.

 Reducing Memory Latency − It takes very little time to retrieve data from memory which
shows it reduces memory latency.
 Increasing effective CPU utilization − It supports full CPU utilisation by fast data accessing
and giving it to the CPU so that the execution of instructions or programs is done on
time.
 Reduced Power Consumption − Cache memory consumes much less power than other types
of storage.
 Scalability − Cache memory can grow with a system's needs.

Overall, a cache memory increases throughput, improves reliability and increases scalability.
 HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)
What are Hard Disk Drives (HDD)?
The hard disc drive is the main hardware in a computer that stores data. Most files,
including the operating system and programme titles, are kept on the hard disc drive.

Components of Hard Disk Drives

A hard drive has a few fundamental elements. One or more shiny silver platters store
magnetically stored information, an arm mechanism moves a tiny magnet called a read-
write head over the platters to record or store information, and an electronic circuit controls
everything and connects the hard drive to your computer.

1. Actuator
The actuator arm is a mechanical element responsible for providing support to the
read/write heads. The mechanism facilitates the movement of the read/write heads to the
intended track on the platter for data reading or writing. Contemporary hard disc drives
(HDDs) employ voice coil actuators to achieve precise positioning.
2. Read-write Heads
Every platter is equipped with a corresponding read/write head that hovers slightly above its
surface. These components are tasked with the responsibility of retrieving data from and
storing data on the platters. The actuator arm is utilised to swiftly traverse the surface of
the platter, facilitating access to various sections of the disc.

3. Central Spindle
Platters rotate at a consistent pace with the spindle. Most HDDs spin at 5,400 or 7,200 RPM,
while some high-performance devices spin at 10,000 or 15,000 RPM.

4. Magnetic Platter
it stores information in binary form. The flat, round discs inside an HDD are called platters.
Most of the time, these plates are made of aluminium or glass and have a magnetic coating.
Magnetic patterns keep the information on the platters.

5. Power Connectors
These link the hard drive to the circuit board in a personal computer. A power connector is
needed to power internal HDDs from the computer's power source. Modern discs use SATA
power connectors.

6. Read-write Head
The read-write head is a tiny magnet on the end of the read-write arm.

7. Circuit Board
The controller board, also called a "Printed Circuit Board" (PCB), is the HDD's brain. It holds
the drive's software, which controls how data is accessed and fixes errors. The drive is also
connected to the computer's interface (such as SATA or IDE) by the driver board.

8. Data Connector
The computer's power supply device powers internal HDDs through a power connector.
SATA power connectors are common for newer drives.

9. Small Spindle
This allows the read-write arm to swing across the platter. Platters are the most critical hard
drive elements. Their name implies that they are hard discs made of glass, ceramic, or
aluminium coated with a thin metal coating that may be magnetised or demagnetized.
Although compact hard drives have one platter, each side is magnetically coated. Larger
drives feature platters stacked on a spindle with a tiny gap. The read-write heads can reach
any region of the platters, which rotate at up to 10,000 rpm.
A five-platter hard drive would need ten read-write heads because each platter contains two,
one for the top and one for the bottom. An electrically operated arm moves the read-write
heads from the drive centre to the edge and back.

Features of Hard Disk Drives:

Some of the key features of Hard Disk Drives or HDDs are as follows −

1.Data Storage
HDDs consist of one or more rigid, rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with a magnetic
material. Data is stored on these platters in the form of magnetic patterns. To read or write
data, a read/write head moves over the spinning platters.

2.Capacity
HDDs are available in various storage capacities, ranging from a few gigabytes (GB) to
multiple terabytes (TB). The capacity of an HDD is determined by the number of platters it
contains and their data density.

3.Speed
HDDs are generally slower than SSDs in terms of data access times and read/write speeds.
This is because the read/write heads need to physically move to the correct location on the
disk, causing latency.

4.Durability
HDDs are mechanical devices with moving parts, which makes them susceptible to
mechanical failure if subjected to physical shocks, drops, or excessive vibration. SSDs, being
solid-state, are more durable in this regard.

5.Price
HDDs are typically less expensive per gigabyte compared to SSDs. This makes them a cost-
effective choice for large storage needs.

6.Noise and Heat

HDDs can generate noise due to the spinning platters and moving heads. They also generate
heat, so proper ventilation is necessary to prevent overheating.
7.Power Consumption
HDDs generally consume more power than SSDs because of the mechanical components.
This can lead to slightly higher electricity usage in laptops and desktops.

8.Longevity
The lifespan of an HDD can vary but is often shorter than that of an SSD. Over time, the
mechanical parts can wear out, leading to data loss.

9.Applications
HDDs are commonly used for various purposes, such as storing large files (photos, videos,
and documents), running operating systems and software, and in network-attached storage
(NAS) devices for backup and data sharing.

10.Backup
Due to their mechanical nature, it's important to regularly back up data on HDDs to prevent
loss in case of failure. Redundant storage systems or RAID configurations can be used for
added data protection.

How do Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) Work?

The working of an HDD depends on its components which are described above. The main
elements; a spinning platter and an actuator arm are as −

1.Magnetic Platters
Platters refer to circular plates. The number of platters in a hard drive is directly proportional
to its storage capacity, as each platter can accommodate a specific quantity of information.
Consequently, a hard drive with greater storage capacity would include a larger number of
platters compared to one with lesser storage capacity. The process of storing and retrieving
information from the platters involves the utilisation of concentric circles known as tracks,
which are further divided into sectors.

2.Arm
The arm refers to the component protruding above the platters. The arms are equipped with
read and write heads that are utilised to read and store magnetic data onto the platters.
Each platter will possess its arm that is utilised to read and write data from and onto it.

The motor is employed to rotate the discs at speeds ranging from 4,500 to 15,000
revolutions per minute (RPM). A higher rotational speed of a drive corresponds to improved
performance outcomes. When a computer requires data retrieval from the hard drive, the
motor initiates the rotation of the platters, while the arm repositions itself to the designated
location above the platter where the data is stored. The magnetic heads located on the arm
are responsible for detecting the magnetic bits present on the platters. These heads then
convert the detected bits into the corresponding data, which can be utilised by the
computer. In contrast, during the process of data transmission to the drive, the magnetic
heads will emit magnetic pulses towards the platters, so altering the magnetic
characteristics of the platter surface and subsequently storing the information.

HDDs are cheaper and have a higher capacity than SSDs, but they are slower and less
durable. The use case and cost-performance-storage capacity balance determine whether to
utilise HDDs or SSDs. Computers and electronics store and retrieve data on HDDs. Based on
their speed and dependability, Solid State Drives (SSDs) have become popular after decades
of use.
 COMPACT DISK (CD)
What is a CD (Compact Disk):
Compact disc is portable storage devices used for storing digital data like recording, storing, and
playing video, and audio. Compact Disc can be explained as a disc-like memory device made from
plastic material.

How Compact Disc Works?

Compact discs, sometimes known as CDs, typically have a diameter of 12 cm, or 4.5 inches.
There are four distinct layers in it.
 Top Layer
 Lacquer Layer
 Reflective Layer
 Polycarbonate Disc Layer

The top layer is used to mark the disc’s identification marks, and it may also carry printed
instructions or a name identifying the contents of the device. Below the top layer, in the lacquer
layer, The device is protected from exposure to atmospheric air, which can cause oxidation. The
reflective layer, which is constructed of aluminium material and is located beneath the lacquer
layer, is where the laser beam is pointed in order to catch a reflection, which can then be used
to read the disk’s data. The data are encoded for the compact disc to function properly in the
polycarbonate layer at the bottom of the disc.
A CD player or disc drive is required in order to access a compact disc. It is made up of a variety
of hardware components, including a tiny laser beam and another tiny electronic light detector,
within a CD player. Here, a semiconductor diode laser is used to produce the laser beam, and a
photoelectric cell serves as the electronic light detector.
When the CD player or disc drive is turned on, the internal motor of the device enables the
compact disc to rotate at a significant high speed, between 200 and 500 rotations per minute.
This causes the internal semiconductor diode laser to be powered up and begin scanning the
disc’s tracks from the centre outward. To read the data from the base layer, this is transferred
through the disc. As a result, the reflection that was generated can retrieve the data from the
CD and provide it to the device accessing the CD. The digital light detector can receive the
reflection and read the electronic contents that are already saved into the storage unit.
Types of Compact Disks
There are three types of CDs available:
 CD-R : CD-R full form is Compact Disc – Recordable. This type of compact disc can be written
only once and can not erased.
 CD-ROM : CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. This disks are read once,
after read it is use as a ROM, that is cannot be updated later.
 CD-RW : CD-RW full form is Compact Disc-ReWritable. This type of compact disc can be
written multiple times and can be erased also, like Pendrive.

Advantages of Compact Disk

 Portable: CDs are more compact and lightweight, they are easier to store and travel.
 Reliable: In that time, an entire software can be stored on one CD, so its very reliable for the
software industries in the days.
 Multiple Applications: It is also adaptable. The higher capacity of the compact disc was
exploited for uses other than storing digital audio. CDs became a popular media for
distributing home films, software packages, and other digital content.
 Random Access: CD provides random data access. Users can use this random access to
choose music tracks, specific files or data, or explore a menu via a user interface.
 Rewritable Formats: Another benefit of compact discs is the availability of rewritable
versions such as CD-R and CD-RW.

Disadvantages of Compact Disk

 Inferior Capacity: CDs have more storage capacity than their predecessors, but subsequent
storage mediums have more capacity. Storage capacity is lower than a hard drive or DVD,
now a days CD is not used at all.
 Older Technology: A compact disc’s limitation stems from its older read and write
mechanism technology, which is based on 780nm wavelength.
 Inferior Quality: It should be noted that audio-video files with higher audio and video quality
can be stored on DVDs and Blu-ray Discs.
 Durability Issues: Magnetic tapes are less durable than CDs. However, it is still fragile
because it is easily scratched if not treated carefully. When exposed to severe heat and
humidity, it might deform and become unusable.
 Obsolete Medium: Another issue of CDs is that they have become obsolete as better storage
methods have become available.
 It’s also worth noting that compact discs aren’t suitable for backup storage because of their
limited storage capacity, susceptibility to breakage, and obsolescence. It is preferable to use
hard drives or solid-state drives.
 DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC (DVD)
What is the Full form of DVD?
The full form of DVD is Digital Versatile Disc. DVD is a digital optical disc storage format
which was developed and invented in 1995 and used to store high-capacity files, such as
top-standard videos and movies. VCDs were standard optical digital storage disks before
invention, but DVDs have higher capacity than compact discs of almost the same size
and shape.

Categories of DVD

1. A DVD comes in two different sizes:

 DVD with a size of 120 mm – Used for software, videos, operating system storage, etc.
 DVD with a size of 80 mm – Used for compact devices such as portable music player & video
camera etc.

2. DVDs are classified depending on their operation such as:

 DVD-ROM can be used only for reading, but it can not be written.
 DVD-R is used for recording data of any kind.
 DVD-RW is Readable, writable and can be deleted & rewritten.

Benefits of DVD:

 High capacity storage, for example, 4.7 – 9 Gb.

 Great quality of sound and picture, so the correct approach to store videos & audios.
 Relatively inexpensive, because they are manufactured in mass production.
 Like CD, data can be preserved on both sides of the DVD.
 FLASH MEMORY
What Is a Flash Memory?
A flash memory is a computer storage device that can store data for short periods of time. Unlike
traditional hard drives, flash memories are able to retain data even after the power has been turned off.
This makes them perfect for portable devices, such as smartphones and tablets. Flash memories also
tend to be more reliable and faster than traditional hard drives. As a result, they are becoming
increasingly popular in the world of computing.

Features of Flash Memory:

 Non-Volatile

Non-volatile or NVM memory is the type of memory that does not require any power to store and keep
data. So, flash memory is a non-volatile memory that does not require any to keep data but you may
require power during storage processes. Simply, if you disconnect flash storage, it will not lose its
contents. This feature allows us to store data on this memory until you want to remove it.

 Re-Writable

The best feature about flash memory is that it is re-writable. You can remove the previous data and
write a new set of new data hundreds of thousands of times on flash memory. Because of this feature,
flash memories are used in almost every digital device from homes to large industries.

 Very Low Access Time

Flash memories are lightning-fast that can even reach up to 1000 MBps. Huge servers, scientific
institutes, and data gathering companies use flash memories for their fast response.

 Shock Resistance

Old magnetic storage media like hard disk drives are used to get out of order in case of shock. Flash
memories are not only shockproof but their lifespan is also more than the latter storage devices as they
lack the physical components like heads and discs.

Forms of Flash Memory: All-Flash vs Hybrid Flash:

 All-Flash

This flash memory consists of All-Flash Arrays (AFA) and it is a type of Solid State Storage System. Most
of the storage media that we use today is All-Flash Memory such as USB Flash Drives, SSDs, Memory
Cards, etc. This storage media does not contain any magnetic heads or spinning platters.
  Hybrid Flash

This kind of flash memory is developed by combining SSD (Solid State Disk) with the traditional HDD
(Hard Disk Drives) with spinning platters. The technical name of Hybrid Flash is Hybrid Flash Array and it
was developed for improving IO speed.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Flash Memory:

Advantages:
1. Flash Memories are durable as they are shockproof.
2. These storage devices are compact and portable so you can carry them anywhere.
3. These storage devices are very fast.
4. Flash Memories are lightweight.
5. These memories can store data in thousands of GBs AKA TBs.
6. Flash Storage Devices are present in both forms, internal and external storage.
7. The latest types of Flash Memory can be attached to your smartphones using OTG connectors.
8. Flash memories are used as promotional material.

Disadvantages:
1. These memories are very costly.
2. More susceptible to data loss than hard drives.