Chapter 3 Direct Current Generators

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Discuss emf equation of dc generator

2. Discuss the classification and characteristics of dc generator
3. Calculate the losses and efficiency of each classification of dc generators
4. Enumerate the requirements for parallel operation of dc generators

3.1 Generated EMF in the Armature of DC generator

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction articulate that whenever a conductor is
placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an
electromagnetic force gets induced in the conductor.

Let: E = generated voltage, in volt (V)

P = number of poles
N = speed of rotation of armature, in rev/min (rpm)
Z = total number of conductors or elements in the armature
ɸ = flux per pole
a = number of armature current paths or parallel paths

Then:

ɸ
→ɸ
60

ɸ
10 →ɸ
60

After the generator is assemble, the number of poles (P), number of armature
windings (Z), and the number of parallel paths (a) will become constant as you
cannot change these parameters without changing the entire assembly.

ɸ
→ ɸ
60

this leads us to:

:
Therefore,

ɸ!
# $# $
! !

" " ɸ"

 Problem 3.1: A 4 pole machine is running at 1500 rpm. Its armature is winded in
simplex, lap connection and has 90 slots with 6 conductors per slot. The flux per pole
is 60 mWb. Determine the terminal emf as a dc generator.
Solution:
- ./012.3/45
ɸ% #&$#' ()*+($, 78 9 " :; <=>#"? @AB$
56/3
810 D
#"$#&$

Problem 3.2: A DC generator having 6 poles with duplex lap winding has 48 slots and
four elements per slot. The flux per pole is 2.5 x 106 maxwells. If it runs at a speed of
1200 rpm, find the output voltage.
Solution:
F G6GHG03
ɸ% # $#& ()*+($, 78!.?9" - B 9JK))(>#"! @AB$
E 56/3
#!$# $
L 10
48 NO P

Problem 3.3: A simplex wave connected dc generator has 1000 armature conductors.
It has 8-pole and a flux per pole of 0.035 Wb. At what speed must it be driven to
generate 500 V?
Solution:
ɸ%

# $#" $# . R? <=$#%$
500 D #!$#"$
214.28 T

Problem 3.4: A 4-pole dc generator has 124 simplex lap coils, each having two turns.
The flux per pole is 0.015 Wb. Calculate the dc voltage appearing across the brushes
when running at 1500 rpm in a steady field.
Solution:
1 turn has 2 conductors, therefore, the number of conductors is:
#124 UO $ ,
! +V@W( ! X*WZVX+*@(
7, 7 496 UO \]UPO
X*Y) +V@W
ɸ% #&$#&' $# . "? <=$#"? @AB$
186 D
#"$#&$

Problem 3.5: When a generator is driven at 1200 rpm, the generated emf is 125 volts.
What is the generated emf if the speed is reduced to 900 rpm given that the field flux
is unchanged?

ɸ"
Solution:
^ _^ _ → U ` \` ] ] U a \
! !

" " ɸ!
900 T
# $
!
125 D 1200 T
! 93.75 D

3.2 Power Losses in DC generator and Efficiency

While conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, a part of energy
dissipated in the form of heat in surrounding air is called losses in the generator. These
losses affect the efficiency of the generator. A reduction in these losses leads to higher
efficiency. Thus, the major objective in the design of a DC machine is the reduction of
these losses.

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 3.2.1 Copper Losses or Electrical Losses (Pcu)
The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have some resistance.
When current flows through them, there is power loss proportional to the square of
their respective currents. These power losses are called copper losses.

• Armature Winding Loss – power loss due to the resistance of the armature
winding.

d! e

• Shunt Field Loss – power loss due to the resistance of the shunt field winding.

(f d(f
!
e(f

• Series Field Loss - Power loss due to the resistance of the series field winding

(K d(K
!
e(K

• Brush Drop Loss – Power losses in the brushes are due to the contact resistance
as it is attached in a way that will still allow the commutator to rotate which
causes a small voltage drop.

=@V(f d ! e=@V(f D=@V(f d

• Rheostat Loss – Power losses in the field rheostat which controls the field
current. If not specified, this loss is charged to the plant from which the
machine is part of an not against the generator.

3.2.2 Magnetic Loss or Core loss or Iron loss (Pco)

• Hysteresis Loss – loss in the form of heat due to molecular friction in the
metallic core.

g g hB
".
i

• Eddy Current Loss – loss in the form of heat caused by currents circulating in
the metal.

j j# hB P$! i

Where: PH = hysteresis loss

PE = eddy current loss
N = speed of rotation of armature
Βm = maximum flux density
t = thickness of lamination
kH ,kE = proportionality constants
M = weight of core

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 Note: Assuming t & M are constants, frequency f is directly proportional to speed
N, flux density β is proportional to flux φ.

g g k". j j
!
k!

3.2.3 Friction and Windage loss (PFW)

• Mechanical Loss – Losses caused by friction in the bearings and in the brush
contacts
• Windage Loss – losses caused by air friction normally by the uneven surface of
the rotor face.

3.2.4 Stray Load Losses (PStray)

These are load losses not covered by the above losses as outlined. These losses
are hard to determine and assumed to be one percent of the output power of
the generator for machines rated 150 kW and over if not specified.

Problem3.6: The eddy current loss of a dc machine is 300 W when the flux per pole is
30 mWb and the machine is driven at 1000 rpm. How much is the loss if the field is
adjusted to produce 50 mWb per pole while the speed is reduced to 900 rpm.

k
Solution:
! !
j j
lm %mm omm
ln %nm onm
lm #' @AB$m #? B<=$m
R < #" @AB$m #R B<=$m
PE2 = 675 W

3.2.5 Power Flow of DC Generator

Below is the representation of the flow of power on dc generators with its
losses.

Input Power from Power Developed Output Power

Prime Mover (BHP) in Armature (EGIa) (VLIL)

Iron (core) + Friction + Stray Copper Losses

Losses (Pco + Pfw + Pstray) (Pcu = Ia2Ra + Ish2Rsh + Ise2Rse)

Mechanical Efficiency (pB $ – is the ratio of the power generated in the

3.2.6 Efficiency of a DC generator

armature to the power input from prime mover.

qd
pB
rs 746

Electrical Efficiency (pK $ – is the ratio of the power delivered to the load to the
power generated in the armature.

Dt dt
pK
qd

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 Overall Efficiency (pu ) – is the ratio of output power to the input power.

pu → v v v
*V+ *V+

YW *V+ v )*((K(
)*((K( XV X* wJ (+@ x

Maximum efficiency – attained when the variable losses (copper loss) are
equal to the constant losses (i.e. mechanical loss, magnetic loss, etc.)

*V+#B 9$
p#B 9$
*V+#B 9$ v2 #X*W(+ W+ )*((K($

3.3 DC Generator Classification

DC generators may be classified based on how the field and armature windings are
interconnected. Below are the classifications of DC generator.

DC GENERATOR

SEPARATELY
SELF EXCITED
EXCITED

SHUNT SERIES COMPUND

WOUND WOUND WOUND

LONG SHORT
SHUNT SHUNT

3.3.1 Separately-excited DC Generator

The field winding of the generator is supplied (or exited) from a separate or
external DC source like battery or another generator. Since the field is supplied
by a separate source, this machine can operate in stable condition with any
field excitation giving a wide range of output voltage which made it ideal to be
used for testing purposes in laboratories.

Armature
Field
Ra Load
Ia
Vf Rf RL VL
IL = Ia
E
External Source
Equivalent Circuit Diagram

Dt v d e

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 Where: Ra = armature winding resistance, in ohms (Ω)
Rf = field winding resistance, in ohms (Ω)
RL = load resistance, in ohms (Ω)
Ia = armature current, in amperes (A)
If = field current, in amperes (A)
IL = load current, in amperes (A)
E = generated emf in the armature, in volts (V)
VL = load voltage or terminal voltage, in volts (V)

Problem 3.7: The armature of a separately excited generator has a resistance of 0.16
ohm. When run at its rated speed, it yields 132 V on open circuit and 126 V on full
load. How much power is delivered to the external circuit?
Solution:
Remember that in open circuit Ra = 0.16 Ω
there is no flow of current. Ia =0
Open
Therefore, VL = E = 132 V, since V Rf Circuit VL = E
there is no voltage drop (IaRa = 0) in IL = 0
the armature E

Now, at full load we have a load

voltage of VL = 126 V which leads us to

Dt v d e
132 126 v d #0.16$
d 37.5 y

Using formula for power we get, z d 37.5 132 4,950 |

3.3.2 DC Shunt Generator

The field windings of this generator is connected across (or in parallel) the
armature windings. The voltage output is constant from no load to full load
which is ideal for general lighting, small power supply, alternator exciter,
battery charger, etc.
Armature
Field Load
Ra
Ia
Rsh RL VL
E Rsh = shunt field resistance
Ish IL
Ish = shunt field current
Equivalent Circuit Diagram

Dt
d dt v d(f ; d(f ; Dt v d e
e(f

RULE OF THUMB: If not specified, flux φ in a shunt generator is assumed

constant.

Problem 3.8: A 110 Volt, shunt generator has an armature and brush resistance of
0.06 ohm at full load of 85 A. The resistance of the shunt field is 45 Ω, and the stray
power losses are found to be 897 watts. Determine the efficiency.

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 Solution:
*Rated voltage of generators is always considered as output voltage if not
specified. VL = 110 Volts

Dt 110 D
d(f 2.444 y
e(f 45 ~
d dt v d(f 85 y v 2.444 87.444 y
Dt v d e 110 D v #87.444$#0.06~$ 115.247 D

dt Dt 85#110$ 9,350 |
Solving for power output (power delivered to the load):
*V+

d!e #87.444$! #0.06$ 458.792 |

Solving for copper losses:

d(f e(f #2.444$! #45$ 268.889 |

armature winding loss
!
(f shunt field loss

*Since there is no enough data to solve for core losses, we will assume that

9,350 |
core losses are included to the stray power loss.
p
*V+

*V+ v )*((K( 9,350 | v 458.792 | v 268.889 | v 897|

p 0.8520 O 85.20% Power Losses

Alternate Solution:
We can solve the efficiency by getting the power input of the generator which

d 87.444#115.247$ v897W = 10,974.68 W

is the power delivered by the armature (PD) plus the stray losses.
YW z

9,350 |
p 0.85196 O 85.196%
10,974.68

Problem 3.9: A four-pole DC shunt generator has a lap connected armature with 728
conductors. The flux per pole is 25 mWb and the field and armature resistance are
110 ohms and 0.025 ohms respectively. If the generator supplies two hundred fifty
110 V, 75 W incandescent lamp, determine the speed in rpm of the generator.
Solution:

75 |#250$
First we need to get the generated emf (E) of the generator.
dt 170.45 y
t
Dt 110 D
Dt 110 D
d(f 1y
e(f 110 ~
d dt v d(f 170.45 v 1 171.45 y
Dt v d e 110 v 171.45#0.025$ 114.286 D

Now, we can solve for the speed of generator using the generated emf
equation. And since it was not mentioned in the problem, we assume that

k #60 $# $ #60$#1$#4$#114.286$
the generator connection is simplex (m=1).
→ 376.767 T
60 k #4$#728$#25 10 R $

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 3.3.3 DC Series Generator
The field windings of this generator are connected in series with the armature
windings. This type of generator is restricted for the use of power supply
because its terminal voltage increases with the increase in load current from
no load to full load. It can also be used for supplying field excitation current in
DC locomotives for regenerative braking and as boosters to compensate
voltage drops in feeders of distribution systems.
Armature
Rse
Ra Ia Field Load

RL VL
E IL
Rse = series field resistance
Ise = series field current
Ise = Ia = IL
Equivalent Circuit Diagram

Dt v d #e v e(K $

RULE OF THUMB: If not specified, flux φ in a series generator is proportional

to armature current.

Problem 3.10: The terminal voltage of a 150 kW series generator is 600 V at rated load.
The armature resistance is 0.06 Ω and the series field resistance is 0.04 Ω. Find the
generated emf of the generator.
Solution:

150,000 |
First we need to find the load current (IL) then solve for the generated emf
dt 250 y
t
Dt 600 D
Dt v d #e v e(K $ 600 D v 250 y#0.06 ~ v 0.04 ~$
625 D

Problem 3.11: A 30 kW series generator has an efficiency of 88 percent when

operating at rated load. If the stray power loss is 15% of the full load losses, calculate
the maximum efficiency of the generator. Assume that the stray power loss is
constant and the other losses vary as the square of the load.
Solution:
*V+#€t$
p → •
*V+

*V+ v )*((
)*((#€t$
p€t *V+#€t$

30,000 |
• 30,000 | 4,090.91 |
)*((#€t$
0.88
(+@ x#€t$ 15% )*((#€t$ 0.15 #4,090.91 |$ 613.636 |
XV#€t$ a O 0.85 )*((#€t$ 0.85#4,090.91 |$
XV#€t$ 3,477.273 |

Note: For a series generator, at maximum efficiency, the copper loss is

613.636 |
equivalent to the stray power loss.
XV#B 9$
!
XV#B 9$ B 9 XV#€t$

613.636 |
‚
XV#B 9$
‚ 0.42 → O \ P ] ``.
B 9
XV#€t$ 3,477.273 |

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 *V+#B 9$ B 9 *V+#€t$ 0.42#30,000 |$ 12,600 |
*V+#B 9$ 12,600
p#B 9$
*V+#B 9$ v2 #X*W(+ W+ )*((K($ 12,600 v 2#613.636$
p#B 9$ 0.9112 O 91.12%

3.3.4 Compound Generators

Compound generators has two field windings. One winding is excited from full
or nearly full line voltage (referred as the shunt field) and the other is by either
the line current or the armature current (referred as the series field). These
generators have a better voltage regulation than a shunt or series generator.
Compound generators are classified as short-shunt or long-shunt generator.

If the series field is connected so that it has the same polarity as that of the
shunt field, the connection is called cumulative. This connection adds the
magnetic flux of the series field to that of the shunt field as the load increases
which tends to stabilize the output voltage. The Cumulatively Compound
Generators can be Over Compounded, Flat Compounded and Under
Compounded, depending upon the number of series field turns.

For over compounded generator, full load terminal voltage is higher than the
no-load terminal voltage. In case of flat or level compounded generator, the
terminal voltage at the full load is equal to the no-load terminal voltage. In an
under compound generator the terminal voltage at the full load is less than
the no-load terminal voltage.

When the series field polarity is opposite as that of the shunt field, the
connection is called differential. The flux of the series field will cancel an equal
amount of the shunt field flux which decreases the total number of flux for the
armature conductors to cut, causing the output voltage of the generator to
drop. Differentially compounded generators are used to protect a load that
can be damaged by high current such as DC arc-welder, motors subject to
regular overloading, etc.

3.3.5 DC Long-shunt Generator

Series
Rse Field
Armature

Ra Load
Ia
Rsh RL VL

E Shunt Ish IL
Field

Equivalent Circuit Diagram

d dt v d(f
Dt
d(f
e(f
Dt v d #e v e(K $

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 This generator is a combination of the shunt and series generators. The
series field winding is connected in series with the armature winding.
Problem 3.12: A long shunt compound generator supplies 22 kW at a terminal voltage
of 220 V. The resistance of armature, the shunt field and series field are respectively
0.05 ohm, 110 ohms and 0.06 ohm. If the overall efficiency of the above load is 88%,
find the iron and friction losses.
Solution:

22 10R |
First we find the copper losses by getting the current on each branch.
dt 100 y
t
Dt 220 D
Dt 220 D
d(f 2y
e(f 110 ~
d dt v d(f 100 v 2 102 y
d!e #102$! #0.05$ 520.2 | → ƒOTT O P]
(K d(K e(K #102$ #0.06$ 624.24 | → ƒOTT
! !
O ` \
(f d !
e
(f (f #2$ ! #110$
440 | → ƒOTT O ] P ` \
XV v (K v (f 520.2 v 624.24 v 440 1, 584.44 |
Iron and friction losses are the loss aside from copper losses (Pcu) considering
that the generator has no stray loss (Pstray = 0 )
p
*V+

*V+ v )*((
22,000 |
0.88 → )*(( 3,000 |
22,000 | v )*((
)*(( XV v X* v wJ v (+@ x
3,000 | 1,584.44 | v X* v wJ v 0
# X* v wJ $ 1,415.56 |

3.3.6 DC Short-shunt Generator

This generator is a combination of the shunt and series generators where the
series field winding is connected in series with the load.
Series
Field Rse
Armature

Ra Load
Ia
Rsh RL VL

E IL
Ish Shunt
Field

Equivalent Circuit Diagram

d dt v d(f
D(f
d(f → D(f Dt v dt e(K
e(f
D(f v d e

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 Problem 3.13: A short shunt compound dc generator supplies a current of 100 A at a
voltage of 220 V. If the resistance of the shunt field is 50 ohms, of the series field 0.025
ohm, of the armature 0.05 ohm, the total brush drop is2V, and the iron and friction
losses amount to 1 kW, find the BHP (Brake Horse Power) of the driving engine.
Solution: rating of prime mover
Brake horse power is equivalent to the power input of the generator which is
the power developed in the armature + other losses aside from copper loss
but only express in horse power (hp). It is the power output of the prime

D(f Dt v dt e(K 220 v 100#0.025$ 222.5 D

mover which drives the generator.

D(f 222.5
d(f 4.45 y
e(f 50
d dt v d(f 100 v 4.45 104.45 y
D(f v d e 222.5 v 104.45#0.05$ 227.7225 D
z d 104.45#227.7225$ 23,785.615 |
YW z v *+fK@ )*(( 23,785.615 v 1,000 24,785.615 |
1 T
rs 24,785.615 | ^ _ 33.22 sT
746 |

3.3.7 Voltage-Current (VI) Characteristic of DC Generators

The voltage-current characteristics
shows the change in output voltage of a
DC generator with the change in load
current from no load to full load. From
the curve we can get a clear idea about
the voltage regulation of various kind of
DC generators. The lower the voltage
regulation will be, the performance of
the generator will be better.
On the right is the voltage-current
characteristic curve of DC generators.
Image from: https://www.electrical4u.com/dc-
generators-performance-curves/
3.3.8 Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation determines the amount of voltage rise across the terminals
of a generator as the load is removed. It is expressed as a ratio of the change
in voltage to the full-load voltage.

D%t • D€t
%De 100%
D€t

Where: VNL = no-load voltage

VFL = full-load voltage (rated voltage of generator)

Problem 3.14: The percent regulation for a 250 volts shunt generator is 10.5%.
Calculate the no-load voltage of the generator.
Solution:

D%t • D€t
From the equation
%De 100%
D€t
#%De$#D€t $
D%t v D€t
100%

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 #10.5%$#250$
D%t v 250
100%
D%t 276.25 DO P

3.5 Parallel Operation of DC Generators

Generators are connected parallel to each other to increase the power capacity to
serve larger loads. But that is just one of the main reason of paralleling generators. By
doing so, you can also increase the reliability of the system by the following:
1. Continuity of Service – if a single large capacity generator is used for an entire
service area, then in case of its breakdown or maintenance, the whole service area
will be in total black out. However, if the power comes from a number of smaller
units operating in parallel, then in case of failure/maintenance of one or several
units, the continuity of supply can be maintained by the other healthy units.
2. Maintenance and Repair – smaller machines means easier operation and faster
maintenance;
3. Efficiency – as the demand of power varies from time to time, you can switch off
some units if the demand is low enough to be carried by fewer units which
increases efficiency as generators are much efficient when operating at rated
capacity.

3.5.1 Requirements for Parallel Operation of DC Generators

I. Equal Magnitude of Terminal Voltage
II. Same Terminal Polarity
III. Same type of DC generator (as to external characteristics)

3.5.2 Parallel Operation Given Internal Parameters

Using Millman’s Theorem,

e
"
ve! v⋯
Dt " !
1 1 1 1 1
e " v e(f" v e ! v e(f! v ⋯ v et

VL = terminal voltage or bus bar voltage

• Dt Dt • Dt Dt
dt" • ; dt! •
" !
e " e(f" e ! e(f!

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 Problem 3.15: Two shunt generators running in parallel supply a total load current of
2000 A. Each machine has a field resistance of 50 ohms and an armature resistance of
0.01 ohm. The emfs generated are 230 V and 235 V respectively. Calculate: (a) bus bar
voltage; (b) current delivered by each generator.
Solution:
(a) Bus bar voltage:

e
"
ve! e
"
ve!
Dt " ! " !
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
v v v v v v v v
e " e(f" e ! e(f! et e " e(f" e ! e(f! Dt
dt
230 235
v
Dt 0.01 0.01
1 1 1 1 1
0.01 v 50 v 0.01 v 50 v Dt
2000
Dt 222.4555 DO P

" • Dt Dt 230 • 222.4555 222.4555

(b) Current delivered by each generator
dt" • • 750 y
e " e(f" 0.01 50
• D D 235 • 222.4555 222.4555
dt! • • 1,250 y
! t t
e ! e(f! 0.01 50

3.5.3 Parallel Operation Given External Parameters

External parameters of generators are mostly used in parallel operation
because they can be easily measured by electrical testers. The characteristic
curve of generators is always assumed linear.
Voltge (V)

Characteristic Curve of
DC Generator

VNL

VL
IL
VFL
IFL
Load Current (A)

By ratio and proportion of similar triangles:

d€t D%t • D€t d€t #D%t • Dt $

→ dt
dt D%t • Dt D%t • D€t

Where: VNL = no-load voltage

VFL = full-load voltage
VL = operating voltage or bus bar voltage
IFL = full-load current
IFL = load current

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 Problem 3.16: Two 220 V generators operate in parallel supplying a total current of 65
A. One machine has a terminal voltage of 260 V on no load and 220 V when supplying
30 A. The second machine phas a voltage of 270 V on no load and 220 V when
supplying 45 A. Calculate: (a) bus bar voltage; (b) current delivered by each generator.
Solution:
First we need to plot the graph of two generators.

V
280
270
260
250 Gen. B
240
230 Gen. A
220
210 A
-10 10 30 50

We can plot the graph side by side including the load current (IL) and load
voltage (VL) to have a better glimpse of the graph (note: just neglect ‘–‘ sign)
V
280

270

260
250
Gen. B Gen. A
240

230 VL

IB = (65 – IA ) 220 IA
210 A
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
IL = 65 A

d€t#…$ #D%t#…$ • Dt $ 30#260 • Dt $ 3#260 • Dt $

We can now solve the problem using ratio and proportion:
d…
D%t#…$ • D€t#…$ 260 • 220 4
d€t#†$ #D%t#†$ • Dt $ 45#270 • Dt $ 9#270 • Dt $
d†
D%t#†$ • D€t#†$ 270 • 220 10

As shown, d† 65 • d…

9#270 • Dt $ 3#260 • Dt $
Therefore,
65 •
10 4
Dt 226.061 D

3#260 • Dt $ 3#260 • 226.061$

Substitute VL to IA & IB:
d… 25.4545 y
4 4
9#260 • Dt $ 9#260 • 226.061$
d† 39.5454 y
10 10

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