INHERITANCE

Q1. Define

Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

Chromosome: A thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of genes

Gene: A length of DNA that codes for a protein

Allele: A version of a gene

Q2. Describe how inheritance of sex in humans occur

Each human cell has 46 chromosomes. There are 22 pairs of chromosomes that may not look alike.
These are the sex chromosomes. Female cells have two alike sex chromosomes XX and

Two unalike sex chromosomes, XY. During meiosis, the male sperms contain either X, or Y
chromosomes, whereas the female eggs all contain X chromosomes. Any of the chromosomes have
an equal chance of being pair with any chromosome form either parent. If the sperm from the
father is X, a girl is born and if it is Y, a boy is form since the female has only X chromosomes to pair
up with the chromosomes from thee father.

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Q3. Protein synthesis

DNA molecules remain in the nucleus, but the proteins they carry the codes for are needed
elsewhere in the cell. A molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to transfer the information
from the nucleus.

The gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus, this is because the DNA is too large to pass
through the nuclear pore and enter the cytoplasm as such, mRNA molecules carry a copy of the gene
to the cytoplasm. This process is called transcription.

The mRNA then leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm of the cell. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA
passes through ribosomes. The ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules by reading
the information carried by the mRNA from the nucleus. This process is called translation. The
specific order of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases in the mRNA.

It must be noted that there is always a base pairing in the DNA and mRNA. In DNA, the base pairs are
A-T, G-C, and in mRNA, it is A-U, G-C.

In gene expression, DNA controls cell functions. All body cells contain the same number of genes,
but not all the genes are expressed in every cell because the cell only makes the specific proteins it
needs. Example, the cells of the eye and the cells of the heart contain same genes, but the eyes
expresses genes that allows us to see whereas the cells of the heart to not.

Q4. Define

 Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single (n) set of unpaired chromosomes, e.g. in
gametes (sperm cell, eggs cell).
 Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two (2n) sets of chromosomes, e.g. in body cells (all
cells except gametes.

In a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid cell there are 23
pairs, that is 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs of chromosomes. 2n= 2(23) = 46.

The haploid number (n) is 23; n=23.

Q5. Define

 Mitosis: nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells.

The role of mitosis: The process of mitosis is important in growth. We all started off as a single cell
(a zygote). That cell divided into two cells, and then four and so on, to create the organism we are
now, made up of millions of cells.

Cells have a finite life: they wear out or become damaged, so they need to be replaced constantly.
The processes of growth, repair and replacement of cells all rely on mitosis. Organisms that
reproduce asexually also use mitosis to create more cells.

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During mitosis, exact duplication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis, the copies of chromosomes
separate, maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter cell.

Q5. What are stem cells?

Stem cells are those cells in the body that have retained their power of division, they are
unspecialised cells. Examples are the basal cells of the skin, which keep dividing to make new skin
cells, and cells in the red bone marrow, which constantly divide to produce the whole range of blood
cells. In normal circumstances this type of stem cell can produce only one type of tissue: epidermis,
blood, muscle, nerves, etc. Even so, culture of these stem cells could lead to effective therapies by
introducing healthy stem cells into the body to take over the function of diseased or defective cells.
Cells taken from early embryos (embryonic stem cells) can be induced to develop into almost any
kind of cell, but there are ethical objections to using human embryos for this purpose. However, it
has recently been shown that, given the right conditions, brain stem cells can become muscle or
blood cells, and liver cells have been cultured from blood stem cells. Scientists have also succeeded
in reprogramming skin cells to develop into other types of cell, such as nerve cells. Bone marrow
cells are used routinely to treat patients with leukaemia (cancer of white blood cells).

Q6. Define

 Meiosis: a reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to
haploid resulting in genetically different cells. Meiosis leads to the production of gametes,
without which there will be abnormal number of chromosomes formed in zygotes.

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As a result of meiosis and fertilisation, the maternal and paternal chromosomes meet in different
combinations in the zygotes. Consequently, the offspring will differ from their parents and from each
other in a variety of ways.

Q7. Define

 Genotype: the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present

 Phenotype: the observable features of an organism
 Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Identical homozygous
individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding. Example; TT or tt
 Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular gene. Heterozygous individual will
not be pure-breeding. Example: Tt
 Dominant allele: an allele that is expressed if it is present

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  Recessive allele: an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the
gene present

Q8. Explain how to use a test cross to identify an unknown genotype

A test cross can distinguish different genotypes with the same phenotype. To do this, homozygous
and heterozygous for that particular gene is each crossed with a homozygous recessive of that same
gene. If any of the offspring expresses the homozygous recessive allele’s phenotype, then the
unknown genotype is heterozygous. However if none of the offspring shows the phenotype of the
homozygous recessive, then your unknown is homozygous dominant.

A black mouse could have either the BB or the Bb genotype. One way to find out which is to cross
the black mouse with a known homozygous recessive mouse, bb. Thus, if the black mouse is BB, all
the offspring from the cross will be black heterozygotes, Bb. So, if the black mouse is Bb, half of the
offspring from the cross will, on average, be brown homozygotes, bb, and half will be black
heterozygotes, Bb.

Q9.Explain what is known as co-dominance.

If both genes of an allele pair produce their effects in an individual i.e. neither allele is dominant to
the other, the alleles are said to be co-dominant. The inheritance of the human ABO blood groups
provides an example of co-dominance. In the ABO system, there are four phenotypic blood groups,
A, B, AB and O. The alleles for groups A and B are co-dominant, hence giving rise to another
phenotype AB. However, the alleles for groups A and B are both completely dominant to the allele
for group O.

Q10. Sex-linked characteristics

A sex-linked characteristic is one in which the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome,
which makes it more common in one sex than the other. They are mostly located on the X
chromosome. The sex chromosomes, X and Y, carry genes that control sexual development. In
addition they carry genes that control other characteristics. Example, colour blindness, haemophilia,
baldness.

Q11. Describe colour blindness

Any gene carried on sex chromosome is sex-linked. In colour blindness, it is located on the X-
chromosome which is recessive. Since males have only one X-chromosome, which is recessive, it
manifests or expresses but in females, it is rare and only shows if two recessive alleles are present on
the X-chromosomes.

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