Module 4 - Part 1

Sensors and Actuators for
Manufacturing
Smart factories, Sensors and actuators for smart factory: Active and passive sensors,
analog and digital sensors, pressure, flow, temperature, position, strain sensors,
nuclear sensor, MEMS and NEMS sensors, Smart sensors and actuators, Roles of
smart sensors and actuators
SMART FACTORY
A smart factory is a digitalized manufacturing facility that uses connected
devices, machinery and production systems to continuously collect and share
data.
This data is then used to inform decisions to improve processes as well as

address any issues that may arise.
Companies such as ABB Ltd, Cognex Corporation, Siemens AG, Schneider

Electric SE, and Yokogawa Electric Corporation are among the major players
In regard to the changing industrial landscape, manufacturers are en masse

digitizing their factories.
The Smart Factory Market size is estimated at USD 354.60 billion in 2024, and
is expected to reach USD 564.38 billion by 2029, growing at a CAGR of 9.74%
during the forecast period (2024-2029).
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SMART FACTORIES TECHNOLOGIES/CHARACTERISTICS
Smart sensors – These have self-learning and decision-making capability. They can sense the physical parameters or collect information from the
environment and can make decisions depending on the available information.
Smart actuators – The actuator is manipulated or controlled by computers or programmable logic; hence, eliminating the need for a human
operator.
Internet of Things (IoT) – This allows the interconnection between machines, devices, sensors, actuators, and processors that are connected by
communication systems. It can capture the data and also remotely monitor and control the production. It also helps in exchanging the data
between customers and machines.
Cloud computing – This makes data sharing, storing, and processing very flexible. Interconnected devices and machines can upload large
amounts of data. The stored data is then refined for real time applications and also used to provide feedback.
Robotics – This helps in performing repetitive, dangerous and dirty tasks. It can also perform tasks that require a very high level of accuracy. A
smart factory requires an autonomous robot or cognitive robot or both to make the factory smarter and more intelligent.
All these technologies and many more are employed on the production and assembly lines of the manufacturing industries
Benitez, G.B., Ayala, N.F., Frank, A.G. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2020;228:107735.
Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023. 3
• Smart factories use connected equipment and devices to
allow for evidence-based decision-making to optimise
efficiency and productivity throughout the manufacturing
process.
• Delivering an agile, iterative production process can extend

Benefits of the capabilities of both devices and employees, leading to
lower costs, reduced downtimes and less waste in the
manufacturing industry.
Smart
• Identifying and then reducing or eliminating underused or
Factory misplaced production capabilities increases efficiency and
output with little investment in new resources.
• The benefits of digitalizing a factory include those related to

planning, quality control, product development and logistics as
each is assessed and optimised based on real feedback,
leading to cost effective solutions.
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• There are also long-term benefits to be gained
through the introduction of machine learning to
the process.
Benefits of • By collecting and analysing data, it is possible to
schedule preventive and predictive maintenance -
Smart based on accurate real-life information - to avoid
production line shutdowns.
Factory
• Safe and substantiable production systems
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SENSORS IN SMART FACTORIES
• The key elements of smart factories
• In smart factories, the features such as operations’ sequencing, future prediction, fault
diagnosis, warning generation, status updates, are accomplished from the analysis of the
data collected through sensors.
• Sensors are electrical, electronic, or opto-electrical devices that detect the change in the
physical parameters or determine the presence of a particular entity or function and produce
an output signal.
• The output signal is in some form of energy such as heat, light, motion, or chemical reaction.
• The data from the environment is collected by the sensor.
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Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023.
SENSORS IN SMART FACTORIES
• Depending on the requirement, some signal conditioning is done.
• The corrected data is then implemented into the manufacturing industry to enhance
product quality and quantity.
• The information received from the sensors is then evaluated and is used for making
the decision about the operations that are being carried out.
• In this era of automation, sensors are used everywhere.
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Sensors
A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical stimulus from one form into a
more useful form to measure the stimulus
• Two basic categories:
1. Analog – produces a continuous analog signal

2. Discrete – produces an output that can have only certain values
▪ Binary
▪ Digital (e.g., pulse counter)
Automation, Production Systems and Computer-integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, PHI; ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Stimulus Categories and Associated Physical Variables
• For each category, there may be multiple variables that can be measured, as indicated in the right-hand
column.
• These variables are typical of those found in industrial processes.
Microsensors
• A significant trend in sensor technology has been the
development of very small sensors.
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• The term microsensor refers to measuring devices whose

physical features have dimensions in the micron range.
• Microsensors are usually fabricated out of silicon using

processing techniques associated with integrated circuit
manufacture.
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Sensor Transfer Function
The relationship between the value of the physical stimulus and the value
of the signal produced by the sensor in response to the stimulus
S = f (s )
where S = output signal, s = stimulus, and

f (s ) is the functional relationship between them
• Ideal functional form is simple proportional relationship:
S = C + ms
• Binary sensors have functional relationships as follows:
S = 1 if s > 0 and S = 0 if s0
Active Sensors
• Active sensor – responds to stimulus without the need for any

external power.
• For example: Thermocouple
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Passive Sensors
• Passive sensors require an external sources of power in

order to operate
• For example: Thermistor
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Active and Passive Sensors (Remote Sensing Example)
Working of active and passive sensor (a) active sensor (b) passive sensor
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Active Sensors: Remote Sensing
• Active sensors emit energy and measure the reflected or scattered signal
• An active sensor is composed of both a transmitter and a receiver.
• The transmitter emits the electromagnetic energy emitted from the sensors towards the
object (house in figure).
• The transmitted signal interacts with the object and is reflected back to the sensor’s receiver.
• An active sensor:
• Contains both transmitter and receiver
• Suitable for microwave regions of EMR spectrum, where signals can penetrate clouds and
are not affected by rain.
• Is independent of solar radiation and can work day and night during all the weathers.
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Passive Sensors: Remote Sensing
• Passive sensors detect the natural radiation or emission from the target
or the environment.
• In our example of a passive sensor, the solar energy reflected from the
object (house) is received by the sensor.
• Basically, passive sensors can only be used to detect an object when the
naturally occurring energy is available.
• A passive sensor:
• Performance depends on good weather conditions.
• Is suitable for wide band systems.
• Doesn’t require high power.
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Analog Sensors
• Analog sensors produce a continuous signal proportional to the measured or input
sensed parameters.
• The continuous output signal produced by the analog sensors is proportional to the
measurement.
• Common examples of analog sensors are light dependent resistor (LDR), pressure sensor,
temperature sensor, accelerometer, and many more.
• LDR absorbs light energy and converts it into a corresponding analog value which lies between 0 and 255.
• Similarly, the pressure sensors, which are used to measure the amount of pressure applied on the sensor, convert
the measured pressure into an analog output signal.
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Digital Sensors
• In digital sensors, data is converted and transmitted digitally and
produces a discrete value (0 and 1s).
• The digital sensor mainly consists of sensors, cables, and transmitters in

which the signal measured from the sensor is directly converted into
digital form, inside the sensor itself.
• This is because the digital sensor has an inbuilt signal processing unit like
ADC (analog to digital converter), which converts the sensed input signal
(analog form) into digital signal.
• One main advantage of digital sensors is that the digital output of the
sensor can be directly interfaced with the digital controller.
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Digital Sensors
• There is a wide range of different digital sensors like the digital
temperature sensor, digital accelerometer, digital pressure sensor, and so
on.
• Researchers are developing various types of sensors to make the

manufacturing process more advanced and bring more autonomy into
smart factories.
• Smart factories are also using different types of sensors, from basic
sensors like temperature, pressure, humidity sensors, etc, to more
advanced sensors such as position and product quality sensing.
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Pressure Sensors
• Pressure sensors are electro-mechanical devices that are used to
measure the pressure or force in gases or liquids and provide control
signals to the display devices.
• Basically, pressure sensors detect the pressure change and

corresponding to that generates an equivalent electrical signal.
• Pressure sensors can also measure the change in the atmospheric

pressure, as barometric pressure sensors detect the changes in the
atmosphere’s pressure.
• This information is used to predict the weather patterns and related changes.
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Classification of Pressure Sensors
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Piezoelectric Sensors
• Uses the piezoelectric effect to measure the changes in
pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain, or force
and generates an equivalent electrical charge.
• Don’t need any external voltage or current source to

operate
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• Highly sensitive, available in small sizes making them

suitable for everyday applications.
• When a pressure or force is applied to the piezoelectric

sensor, an equivalent electric charge will generate
across the faces of the sensor.
• This measured voltage is proportional to the applied https://www.arrow.com/en/research-and-
pressure. events/articles/piezo-sensors-thrive-under-stress-
take-strain-off-users-minds
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Applications of Piezoelectric Sensors
• Piezoelectric sensors are used in shock detection
• Flow sensors
• Used in accelerometers, microphones, etc
• Ultrasound imaging
• Machine tool dynamometers
• Many more
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Strain Gauge Sensors
• Commonly used in industry to measure the
external forces applied on an object.
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gauge-15121084333.html?mTd=1
• Generate an equivalent electrical signal

corresponding to the applied force, pressure,
torque, etc.
• The applied force that causes strain is

measured with a strain gauge using changes in
electrical resistance.
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• The electrical resistance variation which is proportional to the strain experienced
by the object can be calculated using the following relation:
Where, “∆R” represents the change in resistance in ohms, “R” is the known
resistance, “K” denotes the gauge factor which is usually less than 2 for a
metallic foil and “Ꞓ” is the strain; need to be calculated.
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• A Wheatstone bridge is commonly used to measure the electrical
signal, i.e., change in electrical resistance across the metal foil.
• The bridge generates a voltage signal corresponding to the change

in electrical resistance of the strain gauge.
• The output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge can be given by the

formula.
Where, Vo is the measured output voltage and Vin is the
bridge excitation voltage.
• The strain measured using strain gauge is then used to determine
the stress experienced by an object using Hooke’s law
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Working Principle: Strain Gauge
• When a force is applied to an external object, it causes a change in strain.
• The change in strain which gives information about the amount of force applied to an object is measured
using strain gauge
• The strain gauge fixed on the top of the beam is used to measure this strain.
• In order to measure the strain using strain gauge, it must be connected to an electrical circuit that is capable
of measuring the smallest changes in resistance associated with strain.
• A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the change in the electrical resistance of the device.
• In a Wheatstone bridge configuration, an input excitation voltage is applied across the circuit, and the output
voltage is measured across two points in the middle of the bridge.
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Working Principle: Strain Gauge
✓ When no force is acting on the gauge, the Wheatstone Bridge is
balanced, and the output voltage will be zero.
✓ When the load is applied to the material, the strain gauge also
deforms with the material.
✓ Hence, it causes a change in strain which also results in a

change in the resistance of the strain gauge.
✓ This makes the bridge unbalance and hence, causes a change in

the output voltage.
✓ From the measured voltage, the strain of the gauge can be

calculated, which is further used to measure the applied forces.
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Characteristics of Strain Gauge
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is defined as the smallest absolute amount of change in the value of the strain that can be detected
by the sensor.
• The choice of a strain gauge for a particular application highly depends upon the degree of sensitivity of the
sensor.
• It is observed that the selection of a gauge with a very high sensitivity increases the complexity of the measuring
method.
Accuracy
• Accuracy is defined as the amount of uncertainty in a measurement with respect to an absolute standard.
• Basically, it measures the degree of closeness w.r.t. true value.
Range
• The range of a strain gauge is defined as the maximum strain that can be measured without resetting or
replacing the strain gauge.
• It is important to note that the range and the sensitivity of the device are interrelated. Strain gauge with very
high sensitivity responses to a small strain.
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Some Applications
Aerospace. Vibration and torque Bending and deflection Detect failures in structures
measurement. measurement. like bridges, buildings, and
much more
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Spring Scale
• It is a type of weighing scale that gives the relations between
applied load and spring deformation.
• The relation between force applied and spring deflection is

usually linear and is based on Hooke’s law.
• When the load is applied, the spring stretches depending on

the load applied.
• Its scale units depend on the spring stiffness; the spring having
higher stiffness has large scale units and a good load carrying
capacity.
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Applications
• Spring balances are widely used commercially.
• Used to carry heavy loads such as trucks, storage silos, etc.
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Temperature Sensor
• It is a device used to measure the temperature of air, liquid, and solid
matter.
• It measures the degree of hotness or coldness of an object and converts

the measured temperature into an electrical signal.
• There are different types of temperature sensors available, each sensor

uses different principles and technologies to measure the temperature.
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Different Types: Thermistor
• The term thermistor comes from two
words, i.e., “thermal” and “resistor”.
• It is a thermally sensitive resistor whose

physical appearance changes with the
change in temperature.
• Thermistors are made up of ceramic

materials like oxides of nickel,
manganese, and coated cobalt in a
glass, making them easily deformable.
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Thermistor
• The temperature measured by the thermistor is linearly related with
the resistance of the thermistor and can be given as:
• Here, R represents the change in the resistance value, K is the temperature coefficient of first
order and DT denotes the change in temperature.
• Depending on the value of the temperature coefficient thermistor can

be either referred as “negative temperature coefficient” (NTC) or
“positive temperature coefficient” (PTC)
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Different Types: PTC
• In PTC the coefficient of temperature is positive and hence, with the increase in temperature, the
value of resistance also increases.
• The PTC type thermistor is further classified into two types.
• Silistors – made up of silicon and have linear relationship between the thermistor’s
temperature and resistance
• Switching type of PTC – here, initially the thermistor behaves like NTC, where the thermistor’s
resistance decreases with the increase in temperature.
• But once the temperature reaches the transition point of the device known as Curie
temperature, the resistance of the thermistor again increases with the increase in
temperature
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Different Types: NTC
• NTC has a negative temperature

coefficient and hence, the resistance of
the thermistor decreases with the
increase in temperature.
• Typical Temperatures Ranges:

• NTC: -55°C and 200°C
• PTC: 60°C and 120°C.
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Different Configurations
• Bead thermistors – made by taking the lead wires of platinum alloy which are directly
interfaced to the ceramic body.
• It has faster response time, better stability, and can operate at very high
temperatures.
• Disk and chip thermistors – manufactured using metal surface contact.

• As compared to the bead thermistor, disk and chip thermistors are large and hence
have a slow response time.
• However, the current carrying capacity of this thermistor is better than the bead
thermistor.
• This is because the power dissipation of this thermistor is proportional to the
square of the flowing current.
• Glass encapsulated thermistors – these are more stable and are protected from
environmental changes and are used for the temperature above 150°C.
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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THERMISTOR
• The working principle of a thermistor is that the resistance of the thermistor
changes with the change in the thermistor’s temperature.
• The resistance value can be measured using ohmmeter, which is connected

in series with the battery and the meter.
Ohmmeter
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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THERMISTOR
• The change in the resistance of the thermistor with the temperature
change depends on the materials that are used in the construction of the
thermistors.
• Depending on the thermistor’s materials, the coefficient of temperature
either increases or decreases, depending on the temperature coefficient as
given in Eqn.
• The resistance either increases or decreases with the temperature.
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APPLICATIONS OF THERMISTORS
• Thermistors are compact and hence can be used in digital thermometers
• Household electronics: washing machine, electric cooker, etc
• Air-conditioning: room temperature control
• Industrial process control
• Thermistors are also used for time delay and switching applications
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APPLICATIONS OF THERMISTORS
PTC NTC
• Industrial machines such as • Air conditioners
medical equipment, HVAC • Smartphones
systems, computer components,
and automotive components • Kettles and Irons
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Thermocouples
• A thermocouple is a device or sensor used to
measure the temperature.
• It is commonly used in industry, homes, offices,

etc.
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• It is a cost-effective temperature sensor which

can measure a wide range of temperatures.
• A thermocouple is also defined as a thermal

junction because it is based on the
thermoelectric effect where temperature
difference is directly converted to electric
voltage.
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WORKING PRINCIPLE
• Thermocouples consist of two plates of different metals.
• The welded one end of the plates creates a junction, and the other
end of the plates is free which is connected to the measuring device
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WORKING PRINCIPLE
• The junction is the point that is placed on the targeted surface whose temperature
has to be measured.
• This junction is called the “hot” junction, whereas the other end of the plate is kept
at low or ambient temperature and is called the “cold” or “reference” junction.
• When the hot junction experiences a temperature change, i.e., there occurs some
temperature difference between two metal plates, a voltage is created between
the plates of the thermocouples.
• The induced voltage, which is measured by the voltmeter, is a function of the

temperature between the junctions.
• Hence, by measuring the voltage, we can calculate the temperature of the system.
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TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES
• There are different types of thermocouples available in the market.
• They are segregated depending on the different combinations of alloy

that are used in the construction of thermocouples.
• Each thermocouple has different characteristics, like different

temperature ranges, vibration and chemical resistance, durability, etc.
• Depending on the application, cost, temperature range, stability, etc.,

a particular type of thermocouple can be chosen
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Some of the commonly used thermocouples
• K type thermocouple is the most common type of thermocouple.
• It has the widest temperature measuring range, which can vary from -
270°C to 1,260°C .
• It has two leads, namely positive and negative lead.

• The positive lead is composed of approximately 90% Ni-10% Cr and the negative
lead is composed of approximately 95% Al-2%Mn-1% Si.
• It’s a low-cost thermocouple and can be used in those applications where

the requirement of temperature sensitivity is 41mV/°C.
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T type thermocouples
• The type T thermocouples are commonly used to measure low
temperature.
• The sensitivity of this type of thermocouple is nearly 43mV/C°

and can measure the temperature that ranges from –270°C to
370°C .
• It also has two leads, namely positive and negative lead.

• The negative lead is composed of constantan, which contains 45% Ni-55% Cu, and
the positive lead is composed of copper.
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J type thermocouples
• It is a low-cost sensor and can measure the temperature that ranges from 0 to 760°C.
• The sensitivity of the type J thermocouple is 50 μV⁄ ℃.
• As compared to the K type thermocouple, the J type thermocouple has a smaller temperature
range.
• The positive lead is made from Fe and is coloured black and the negative lead is made from
constantan and its coloured red.
• The overall jacket of the thermocouple is coloured black.
• This type of thermocouple is not suitable for lower temperature application. However, it can
perform best in an oxidizing environment
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S type thermocouples
• S type thermocouples are used for high temperature application.
• They can measure the temperature ranging from 0 to 1,600°C.
• The positive lead is made from 90% platinum and 10% rhodium and the
negative lead is made from platinum.
• The S type thermocouple has good stability and high accuracy; therefore, it
is used in those applications where high temperature needs to be
measured with very good accuracy, such as in pharmaceutical industries,
biotech industries, etc.
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R type thermocouples
• Type R thermocouples are also made from platinum and rhodium.
• However, in R type thermocouples the positive lead is composed of 87% platinum and 13%
rhodium and negative lead is composed of only platinum.
• Compared to the type S thermocouple, the range and the stability of the R type
thermocouple is more.
• The temperature range of the R type thermocouple is between 0 and 1,600 °C.
• It is important to note that type J, K, and T thermocouples are the most common types of
thermocouples.
• Type R and S thermocouples are used in high-temperature applications
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APPLICATIONS OF THERMOCOUPLES
Depending on the temperature range and the applications, thermocouples can be selected:
• Type K thermocouples are used for measuring the temperature of process plants such as chemical
production plants, petroleum refineries, etc.
• Type J is used for monitoring the temperature in a vacuum and inert metals.
• Type S or type R thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of steel and iron industries.
• In chemical production plants and petroleum refineries, a number of thermocouples are used to
measure and monitor the temperature of the plant at different stages.
• Thermocouples are also used in thermostats as temperature sensors to measure the temperature of
the office, showrooms, and homes.
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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Used for temperature measurements.
• It is an electronic device where, with the change in the

temperature, the resistance of the device also changes.
• It has greater accuracy, stability, and repeatability.
• The RTD is an ideal temperature sensor for those applications

that require very accurate temperature measurement.
• Further, it has good linear characteristics over a wide range of

temperatures. This is because the resistance of the RTD varies
linearly with the temperature.
• As the temperature of an object increases or decreases, the

resistance also changes accordingly.
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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF RTD
• In RTD the value of resistance changes with the change
in its temperature. Hence, we can calculate the
temperature of metals by knowing their resistance.
• The resistance of an RTD at any temperature (t) can be

calculated from the following formula:
• Here, Rt and R0 represent the resistance values at temperatures t

and t0 receptively; a and b denote the material constants.
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• In RTD the value of resistance changes with the change in its temperature. Hence, we can calculate the
temperature of metals by knowing their resistance.
• The resistance of an RTD at any temperature (t) can be calculated from the following formula:
• Here, Rt and R0 represent the resistance values at temperatures t and t0 receptively; a and b denote the material
constants.
• Generally, the RTD is constructed using copper, nickel, and platinum.
• In each of these metals the resistance varies differently with the temperature variations, and they have
different resistance- temperature characteristics.
• Depending on the material selection, the values of α and β will be different.
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• In the RTD, the value of change in resistance is also measured using a Wheatstone bridge
• A constant electric current is supplied to the bridge and corresponding to that there causes a voltage
drop which results in a change in the electrical resistance of RTD.
• The RTD resistance can be calculated by measuring the voltage (V) across the two ends as shown.
• The relation between V and the RTD resistance can be given as:
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APPLICATIONS OF RTD
• In automotive, RTD is used to measure the engine temperature.
• RTD is used in communication and instrumentation for measuring the temperature of

amplifiers, transistor gain stabilizers, etc.
• It is also used to measure the temperature of the washing machine, air conditioners,
refrigerator, etc.
• Commonly used in industrial applications, including industrial boilers, petrochemical, exhaust

gas monitoring, and food processing.
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Comparison of RTD and Thermistor
RTD (Resistance Temperature
Basis For Comparison Thermistor
Detector)
Material Metals (platinum, nickel, copper, etc.) Semiconductor
Their accuracy is high. It can detect even small
Accuracy Less accurate. changes in temperature because of negative
temperature coefficient.
Response Time Slow Fast
Temperature Range Up to 850ºC -55°C and + 114°C
Characteristic Graph Linear Non-linear
Sensitivity Low High
Size Large Small
Cost Cheap Expensive
Resistivity High Low
Hysteresis Effect Low High
In industries for measuring large For measuring the temperature of home
Applications
temperature. appliances.
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Bimetallic
• It is based on the principle of thermal expansion where the volume of the metal changes with the
change in temperature.
• Basically, it converts the temperature change into mechanical displacement using a bimetallic strip.
• The bimetallic strip consists of two different metals having different coefficients of thermal expansion
that are bonded together.
• The bimetallic strip is usually constructed from steel and copper and, in some cases, is also designed
from steel and brass.
• It works on the two very basic fundamentals of metals:

• Thermal expansion: depending on the temperature variation, metals either expand or contract.
• Temperature coefficient: at constant temperature metal expands or contracts differently.
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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BIMETALLIC STRIP
• The bimetallic strip is formed from two thin strips of metals, usually steel and brass.
• These strips are joined together along the length to form a structure in which one end of the strip is fixed
and the other end is left free, as shown.
• When the heat is applied to the bimetallic strip, its temperature rises.
• As a result, the strip will bend in the direction of a metal that has a lower temperature coefficient.
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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BIMETALLIC STRIP
• Similarly, when the heat is removed, the temperature will
decrease and the strip will expand in the direction of
metal having a higher temperature coefficient, i.e.,
towards brass.
• The deflection of the strip indicates the temperature
variation.
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Applications
• Air conditioners
• Thermostats
• Control devices
• Heaters
• Ovens
• Hotwires
• Refineries
• Oil burners
• When a certain temperature is reached, the blade arches. Hence, it allows automatic
switching of circuits to control heating and cooling of electrical devices.
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Flow Sensors
• A flow sensor is a device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid.
• Flow sensors incorporate electrical, electronics, and also mechanical subsystems to

measure any changes in the characteristics of a fluid.
• The fluid’s flow rate is calculated from the measured physical properties.
• Flow rate measurement helps in the controlling of many industrial processes and
also assists in the proper operation of machinery at an optimum performance level.
• Several flow sensors are available in the market, but here we will discuss only some
popular types of flow sensors.
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Measuring Fluid Flow: Common Methods
• Measure pressure across a known constriction or opening.
• e.g. Venturi meters, and orifice plates
• Measure the pressure head, which brings the flow to static conditions.
• e.g. Pitot tube and liquid level sensing using floats
• Measure the flow rate (volume or mass) directly.

• e.g. Turbine flowmeter and Impeller Turbine mass flowmeter
• Measure the flow velocity.

• e.g. Coriolis meter, laser Doppler velocimeter, and ultrasonic flowmeter.
• Measure an effect of the flow and estimate the flow rate using that information.
• e.g. Hot-wire (or hot-film) anemometer and magnetic induction flowmeter
64
Sensor Systems- FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, Clarence W. de Silva, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016
Differential Pressure Flow Sensor
• The differential flow meter is the most commonly used flow meter.
• It is used to measure the flow rate of gases and liquids.
• It is used in areas where high pressure, high temperature, and a large

diameter play an important role.
65
Working Principle
• The differential flow meter works on the principle of creating an artificial constriction
that causes obstruction in the flow of fluid as it passes through the constriction.
• This creates a pressure difference due to the pressure drop that occurs when the
fluid flows through a constriction.
• This difference in the pressure is measured and is used to determine the flow rate.
• According to Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure drop across the constriction is

proportional to the square of the flow rate.
• The higher the pressure drops, the higher the flow rate.
66
Working Principle
67
Types of differential pressure flow meter
• Orifice plates
• Venturi meter
• Rotameter
68
ORIFICE PLATES
• The orifice plate is used for the measurement and control of fluid flow.
• The shape of the orifice plate is very similar to a circular disc with a hole in the Centre.
• The disc is placed in the tube through which the fluid is flowing.
www.solnpharma.com
https://new.abb.com/products
69
ORIFICE PLATES
• In flow control applications, the restriction in the path of the fluid is created using
orifice plates.
• This restriction in the tube regulates the fluid flow and hence creates a pressure
difference.
• The pressure difference is measured and is used to calculate the flow rate of the fluid.
• The orifice plate is cost-effective and used widely because of its simple design with no
moving parts.
• The accuracy of the orifice plate is typically accurate to within ±2% to ±5% of the
actual flow.
70
VENTURI METER
• The venturi meter a differential flow meter used to measure the flow rate of the fluid (gas or liquid)
and is based on Bernoulli’s theorem.
• Venturi tubes are a constriction in a fluid conduit and when a fluid is passed through a constriction
having a smaller cross-section, the static pressure decreases
The venturi meter is preferred in several industrial applications

because it is simple to design and can do accurate
measurements
71
VENTURI METER
• Venturi tubes are appropriate for clean, dirty, and
viscous liquid and a few slurry services as well.
• Pressure recovery for venturi tubes is a lot better as
compared to the orifice plates.
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https://instrumentationtools.com/basics-of-venturi-flow-meter/
Pitot Tube, Pitot Static Tube
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73
Pitot Static Tube
Averaging Pitot Tube
https://www.aviationsafetymagazine.com https://www.emcocontrols.com
74
Applications of Pitot Tube
• Measure speed of an aircraft/Boat

• Measure fluid flows in different industries
• Used where very high accuracy is not required
• Measure flow profile in a duct or channel
• In general pitot tube is used to measure velocity of flow
https://clubtechnical.com/pitot-tube
75
ROTAMETER
• A rotameter is also called a variable area flow meter and is used to measure the
volumetric flow of liquids and gases.
• It has the simplest measuring technique where a liquid or gas is passed through a
tapered tube that has a freely moving float.
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76
ROTAMETER
• Floats are available in different shapes, like spheres, ellipsoids, etc.
• When the liquid or gas passes through the tube the float rises because of a combination of the
velocity head of the fluid and the buoyancy of the liquid.
• The falling and rising action of a float in a tapered tube provides a measure of flow rate.
• The float moves either up or down and comes to equilibrium when the weight of the float is
equal to the upward force exerted by the fluid or gas.
• The float position can be related to the volumetric flow rate.
• This position can be compared to a calibrated scale either placed next to the tube or through a
scale on the tube itself.
77
Turbine Flowmeter
• In a turbine flowmeter, the rotation of the turbine wheel located in
the flowing fluid can be calibrated to directly give the flow rate.
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78
Impeller Turbine Mass Flow Meter
• An impeller turbine mass flow meter uses two rotating elements in the fluid stream, a turbine
and an impeller.
• Both have channels, or pathways, that the fluid can pass through.
• The impeller moves at a constant speed, being driven by synchronous motor.
• The motor moves the impeller through a magnetic coupling and imparts an angular velocity on
the fluid as it flows through the meter.
• The downstream turbine receives torque proportional to the angular momentum.
• The turbine is restrained by a spring that deflects through an angle that is proportional to the
torques exerted on it by the fluid and giving a measure of mass flow.
https://www.iqsdirectory.com/articles/flow-meter/mass-flow-meter.html
https://kellypneumatics.com/different-types-of-mass-flow-meters/
79
Coriolis Velocity Meter
• Each Coriolis flowmeter has one or more measuring tubes which an
exciter causes to oscillate artificially.
• As soon as the fluid starts to flow in the measuring tube, additional

twisting is imposed on this oscillation due to the fluid‘s inertia.
• Two sensors detect this change of the tube oscillation in time and
space as the “phase difference.”
• This difference is a direct measure of the mass flow.
• In addition, the fluid density can also be determined from the

oscillation frequency of the measuring tubes.
• The temperature of the measuring tube is also registered to

compensate thermal influences. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/coriolis-flow-meter-working-principle-iris-tang
• The process temperature derived from this is available as an additional

output signal.
80
https://www.aft-instruments.com/products-solutions/coriolis-mass-flowmeter/
Coriolis Velocity Meter
https://new.abb.com/
Suggested Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIIViaNITIw
https://www.keyence.com/ss/products/process/flowknowledge/types/coriolis.jsp
81
Laser Doppler Velocimeter
• A technique used to measure the instantaneous velocity of a flow field.
• The laser Doppler velocimeter sends a monochromatic laser beam toward the target and
collects the reflected radiation.
• According to the Doppler effect, the change in wavelength of the reflected radiation is a
function of the targeted object's relative velocity.
• Thus, the velocity of the object can be obtained by measuring the change in wavelength of
the reflected laser light, which is done by forming an interference fringe pattern (i.e.
superimpose the original and reflected signals).
• A flow is seeded with small, neutrally buoyant particles that scatter light.
• The particles are illuminated by a known frequency of laser light.
82
https://velocimetry.net/ldv_principles.htm
Laser Doppler Velocimeter
• The scattered light is detected by a
photomultiplie tube (PMT), an instrument
that generates a current in proportion to
absorbed photon energy, and then
amplifies that current.
• The difference between the incident and https://www.dantecdynamics.com/solutions/fluid-mechanics/laser-doppler-anemometry-lda/
scattered light frequencies is called the

Doppler shift.
• By analyzing the Doppler-equivalent

frequency of the laser light scattered
(intensity modulations within the crossed-
beam probe volume) by the seeded
particles within the flow, the local velocity
of the fluid can be determined.
https://velocimetry.net/ldv_principles.htm
83
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
• The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift
(Doppler Effect) of an ultrasonic signal when it is reflected
by suspended particles or gas bubbles (discontinuities) in
motion.
• This metering technique utilizes the physical phenomenon

of a sound wave that changes frequency when it is reflected
by moving discontinuities in a flowing liquid.
• Ultrasonic sound is transmitted into a pipe with flowing

liquids, and the discontinuities reflect the ultrasonic wave
with a slightly different frequency that is directly
proportional to the rate of flow of the liquid.
https://www.endress.com/en/field-instruments-overview
https://in.omega.com/prodinfo/ultrasonicflowmeters.html
84
Hot-wire Anemometer
• In the hot-wire anemometer, a conductor carrying current (i) is placed in the fluid flow.
• The temperatures of the wire (T) and of the surrounding fluid (Tf) are measured along with the
current.
• The coefficient of heat transfer (forced convection) at the boundary of the wire and the moving fluid
is known to vary with v, where v is the fluid velocity.
• Under steady conditions, the heat loss from the wire into the fluid is exactly balanced by the heat
generated by the wire due to its resistance (R). The heat balance equation gives
• This relation can be used to determine v.
• Instead of a wire, a metal film (e.g., platinum- plated glass tube) may be used.
https://www.elprocus.com
85
Magnetic Induction Flowmeter
• Uses Faraday’s law of induction to measure the flow
rate of conductive liquids.
• Current-carrying coils generate a magnetic field in a

measuring pipe.
• When a conductive liquid flows through the magnetic

field, it induces a voltage that is measured by two
electrodes immersed in the media.
• The induced voltage is directly proportional to the

average flow velocity.
• Volumetric flow rate is calculated using the flow

velocity and cross-sectional area of the pipe. www.vortekinst.com
86
https://www.automationdirect.com/adc/overview
Magnetic Induction Flowmeter
• Magnetic-inductive flow meters are a versatile and reliable type of flow meter used in
a wide variety of industrial applications.
• Magnetic-inductive flow meters, or magmeters are used to measure the flow rate of
conductive liquids such as industrial water, drinking water, water-based coolants,
water glycol mixtures, and salt water.
• They have no moving parts, require little maintenance, and offer a cost-effective
option for flow measurement applications where accuracy and reliability are
important.
87
https://www.automationdirect.com/adc/overview
Applications of Flow Sensors
• Flow sensors are used in the automobile industry to measure the air intake in the engine. This helps
in delivering an accurate amount of fuel to the injector and hence provides the required fuel
mixture to the engine.
• Flow sensors are also used in medical ventilators for delivering air and oxygen to the patients at a
correct rate.
• Industrial applications require highly reliable air flowmeters for accurate monitoring of compressed
air usage.
• Steam flow measurement.
• Many more
88
Position Sensors
• The position sensor is a device used to detect an object’s position such as doors, valves, etc.
• The sensed signal is converted into electrical signals which are suitable for processing, transmission, or control.
• These sensors are equipped with location tracking systems that help to determine the precise positions of work-in-
progress, tools, and other production-relevant items within the facility.
89
Position Sensors
• The position sensors can be contact type or non-contact type:
• Contact sensors – these measure the position of an object through

direct contact with the sensors.
• It is a device that uses a transducer to sense mechanical contact and gives an output signal when
the measured object comes in contact with the sensor.
• The commonly used contact sensors are the potentiometer, strain gauge, etc.
• They are commonly used in robotics to detect the change in position, velocity, acceleration or
force/torque between the manipulator’s joints and the end effector
90
Potentiometer
• Potentiometer is the simplest type of position sensor.
• It is a three terminal resistor having either sliding or rotating contact

that forms an adjustable voltage divider.
• The resistance is varied manually to control the flow of electric current

and hence, producing a voltage drop in accordance with Ohm’s law.
91
Working Principle
• Potentiometers work by varying the position of the sliding contact/wiper (b) over the uniform
resistance “R”.
• The potentiometer has two input terminals, namely “a” and “c,” source voltage “ Vin” that is
applied across the entire resistance length, and the output voltage, representing the voltage drop
across the fixed and sliding contact.
• To get the output voltage, the sliding contact is moved along the resistor and is calculated using
Eqn.
92
Types of Potentiometers
• Potentiometers are classified into two types:
• (a) linear potentiometer and (b) rotary potentiometer.
• The linear and rotary potentiometer consist of two fixed terminals, one moving
terminal known as the wiper and a resistive strip known as a track.
https://www.elprocus.com/potentiometer-construction-working-and-applications/
93
Applications of Potentiometer
• Voltage dividers in the electronic circuit.
• Radio and television receivers for tone, volume and linearity control.
• In agricultural machinery, linear potentiometers are used for precise control of steering.
• Rotary position sensors are used within the steering systems of some marine vehicles, including
submarines.
• Ticket barriers which require a ticket to be scanned before opening use rotary potentiometers to
ensure the gate is open for the allocated amount of time.
• These are used on many ticket barriers, including the ones on the London Underground.
94
Proximity Sensors
• Proximity sensors can detect the nearby object without any physical
touch and hence don’t cause a scratch or damage to the object.
95
INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Non-contact electronic proximity sensors, used to detect metallic
objects.
https://eshop.se.com
• The sensors operate under the electrical principle of inductance

where a fluctuating current induces an electromotive force (EMF)
when a target object comes in close proximity to the sensing area
• The coil in the sensor helps in generating an electromagnetic field.

When the target object, most usually a metallic object, enters the https://www.dubai-sensor.com/
magnetic field, an eddy current starts circulating around the target.
• This leads to added load on the sensor. As a result, the oscillator’s

amplitude decreases. The more the target gets close to the sensor,
the oscillator’s amplitude decreases further.
96
Inductive Proximity Sensors
97
Components of inductive proximity sensors
• Coil – The coil is among the most important components of this sensor as it
generates the electromagnetic field that helps detect the target. The coil is held
inside by a ferrite magnetic core. The cup-shaped core helps in concentrating the
magnetic field of the coil on the sensor’s front area.
• Oscillator – There is usually an oscillator producing a radio frequency of 100 kHz

to 1 MHz. The main purpose of the oscillator is to create an electromagnetic field
for sensing the target object.
• Trigger Circuit – It is the function of the trigger circuit to sense the alteration in
the amplitude of oscillation. It then provides the necessary signal to solid-state
output.
• Output Circuit – There is a transistor in the output circuit. On receiving the gate
signal, the transistor switches ON, and you get an output.
98
• Only metallic objects exhibit inductive attributes. Therefore, if you want the sensor to
sense and detect non-metallic substances such as cardboard or plastic, it will not show any
results.
• The best thing about an inductive proximity sensor is that non-metallic substances don’t
interfere with the detection.
• Dirt and liquid substances do not affect the detection process. Hence the sensor works
excellently in dirty as well as wet conditions.
99
• Inductive properties vary from one metal to another.
• The sensing distance will depend on the kind of metal you are using for the testing.
• If you are using ferromagnetic objects, you will have a very long sensing
distance.
• For non-ferrous metals like copper or aluminium, the sensing distance will
be shorter.
• Generally, for an inductive proximity sensor, short-range applications are

good as inductive effects wane with increasing distance between the
object and the sensor.
100
Inductive Sensor Applications
Inductive sensors find widespread applications across various industries due to their contactless and reliable
object detection capabilities.
• In manufacturing, they are commonly used in automated assembly lines for detecting the presence or absence
of metallic components, ensuring precise positioning and quality control.
• In the automotive industry, inductive sensors are employed for tasks like detecting the position of metallic
parts during assembly and ensuring proper alignment.
• They are also utilized in conveyor systems to monitor the movement of products and control material handling
processes.
• In packaging machinery, inductive sensors assist in detecting the presence of packaging materials and products,
enabling efficient packaging and reducing errors.
• In agriculture, they play a role in equipment automation, such as detecting the level of grains in silos or
controlling the positioning of agricultural machinery.
101
CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR
• The main difference between the inductive and capacitive proximity sensor is that the latter produces
an electrostatic field instead of a magnetic field.
• Hence, the sensing area of the capacitive proximity sensor is activated by both conductive and non-
conductive materials, and thus is used to detect both metallic and non-metallic objects.
• A capacitive proximity sensor contains a high-frequency oscillating circuit along with a sensing surface
formatted by two metal plates.
• When an object or target material comes into the sensing areas, the electrostatic field of the metal
plates gets disturbed and causes a change in the capacitance of the proximity sensor.
• This change in the capacitance of the sensors is used to detect objects.
102
CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR
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103
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Applications of Capacitive Sensor
• All such sensors are most commonly used to detect changes in the position
of a conductive target. However, these detectors can also be quite useful in
measuring density, existence, thickness, and the location of non-conductors.
• Position, proximity, velocity, displacement, fluid level, and humidity are all
detected or measured using capacitive sensors.
• Active sensor touch screens are being used as input devices in cell devices,
tablets, digital sound players, and other devices.
• These sensors take the place of mechanical buttons.
https://testbook.com/physics/capacitive-sensor 104
Capacitive Sensor vs Inductive Sensor
Sr. No. Capacitive Sensor Inductive Sensor
An electric field is used by capacitive sensors to detect A magnetic field is used by inductive sensors to detect
1.
objects. objects.
The object does not have to be conductive to be An object has to be conductive to be detected by an
2.
detected by the capacitive sensor. inductive sensor.
These sensors detect both metals and non-conductive

3. This sensor detects metallic objects.
materials.
4. It operates at a lower switching frequency. It operates at a faster switching frequency.
A capacitive sensor has a detection range of 2 to An inductive sensor has a detection range of 0.8 to
5.
50mm. 100mm.
105
https://testbook.com/physics/capacitive-sensor
OPTICAL PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Optical proximity sensors are used to detect
almost all objects. They are expensive
compared to inductive proximity sensors.
• The optical proximity sensors are extensively https://robu.in
used in automated systems.
• These sensors are commonly known as light

beam sensors.
106
Optical Proximity Sensors
• The main components of this sensor are emitter, detector and associated
electronics.
• Emitter (Light Emitting Diode, laser diode) sends a beam of light.
• The detector (photo diode or phototransistor) detects emitted light.
• An associated electronics required to amplify the detected signal.
• The emitter transmits a beam of either visible or infrared light to the

detecting receiver.
107
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Sensing Methods or Working Principle
• Through beam method
• Retro-reflective method
• Diffuse or Reflective method
108
Through beam method
• Relatively complex to install and wire (two piece)

• Advantage: most accurate of the sensing methods with the longest
sensing range (60 m, 0.01 mm)
109
Retro-reflective method
• One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-beam

sensor is for the convenience of one wiring location, the opposing
side only requires reflector mounting.
110
Diffuse or Reflective method
• Common applications: Washroom taps

111
Applications of Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
• Checking objects on production lines or conveyors
• Counting of small objects
• Detection of colour
• Monitoring bigger areas for objects with light grids
• Instead of using multiple sensors, a light grid uses parallel beams of light to cover a
two-dimensional area.
• Measuring distance
• Logistics and materials handling
• Automatic doors
• Many more
112
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS-Reed Type
• Magnetic proximity sensors detect a target by using an external magnetic
field.
• A typical magnetic proximity sensor features two ferromagnetic reeds (or

contact blades) sealed in a glass casing filled with inert gas.
• Their glass tube encasing ensures they are protected from corrosion.
• When this casing is approached by the target (usually a permanent

magnet), the contact ends attract each other and make contact.
• As a result, magnetic proximity switches are ideal for detecting

ferromagnetic targets.
• Also useful in detecting the opening of a door in security alarm systems.
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https://electronics360.globalspec.com/article/18678/proximity-sensors-working-principle-types-and-applications
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Hall Effect Type
✓ Consider a semiconductor element subject to a DC voltage vref.
✓ If a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of this
voltage, a voltage vo will be generated in the third orthogonal
direction, within the semiconductor element.
✓ This is known as the Hall effect (observed by E.H. Hall in 1879)
✓ Because the output voltage vo increases as the distance from the
magnetic source to the semiconductor element decreases, the
output signal vo can be used as a measure of proximity.
Schematic representation of a Hall-

effect sensor.
https://www.symmetryelectronics.com
114
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Hall Effect Type
• Hall effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the

magnitude of a magnetic field.
• Its output voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic field

strength through it.
• Used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, and

current sensing applications.
• Frequently, a Hall sensor is also combined with threshold

detection so that it acts as a switch.
https://se.rs-online.com/web/generalDisplay.html?id=ideas-and-advice/hall-effect-sensors-guide
115
https://robu.in/magnetic-proximity-sensor/ and https://byjus.com/physics/hall-effect/
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS-GMR
• Giant magneto resistive technology (GMR) to detect objects.
• GMR is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in thin films of

alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers.
• When a magnetic field is applied to these films, the electrical

resistance changes significantly, usually decreasing by 10–80%.
This change is due to the alignment of the magnetic layers'
magnetizations.
• The measuring cell consists of resistors with several extremely

fine, ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers.
• The GMR resistors form a conventional Wheatstone bridge

circuit which amplifies an output voltage signal that is related to
the magnetic field strength impinging on the detector.
116
Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023. and https://robu.in/magnetic-proximity-sensor/
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS-GMR
• Magnetic proximity sensors are more reliable than the simple position
determining mechanical switches because they have no moving parts for wear or
jam.
117
Ravi Kant, Hema Gurung, eds. Industry 4.0: Concepts, Processes and Systems. CRC Press, 2023 and https://robu.in/magnetic-proximity-sensor/.
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Magneto-resistive Type
• Proximity sensors measure the

magneto-resistive effect
• Magneto-resistance is the tendency

of a material to change the value of
its electrical resistance in an
externally applied magnetic field.
https://in.element14.com/festo/
118
https://robu.in/magnetic-proximity-sensor/
MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS: Variable Reluctance Type
• Proximity sensors comprise a permanent magnet
and a pickup coil.
• A VR sensor can determine the position of a

mechanical link in a piece of industrial equipment.
www.phoenixamerica.com
• A Crankshaft position sensor (in an automobile

engine) uses to provide the angular position of the
crankshaft to the Engine control unit. The Engine
control unit can then calculate engine speed
(angular velocity).
• A pickup used in an electric guitar or in other

musical instrument detect vibrations of the https://avionicsduino.com
metallic "strings".
119
Advantages of Magnetic Proximity Sensor
• Contacts are well protected against dust, oxidization and corrosion due to
the hermetic glass bulb and inert gas; contacts are activated by means of a
magnetic field rather than mechanical parts
• Special surface treatment of contacts assures long contact life
• Maintenance free
• Easy operation
• Reduced size
120
Applications of Magnetic proximity Sensor
• Magnetic sensors are used in many industrial applications for

contactless current sensing, linear and angular position, and rotation
sensing.
121

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Sensors and Actuators for

This data is then used to inform decisions to improve processes as well as

Companies such as ABB Ltd, Cognex Corporation, Siemens AG, Schneider

In regard to the changing industrial landscape, manufacturers are en masse

• Delivering an agile, iterative production process can extend

• The benefits of digitalizing a factory include those related to

• The data from the environment is collected by the sensor.

• In this era of automation, sensors are used everywhere.

• Two basic categories:

1. Analog – produces a continuous analog signal

• These variables are typical of those found in industrial processes.

• The term microsensor refers to measuring devices whose

• Microsensors are usually fabricated out of silicon using

where S = output signal, s = stimulus, and

S = 1 if s > 0 and S = 0 if s0

• Active sensor – responds to stimulus without the need for any

• For example: Thermocouple

• Passive sensors require an external sources of power in

• For example: Thermistor

• The digital sensor mainly consists of sensors, cables, and transmitters in

• Researchers are developing various types of sensors to make the

• Basically, pressure sensors detect the pressure change and

• Pressure sensors can also measure the change in the atmospheric

• Don’t need any external voltage or current source to

• Highly sensitive, available in small sizes making them

• When a pressure or force is applied to the piezoelectric

• This measured voltage is proportional to the applied https://www.arrow.com/en/research-and-

• Generate an equivalent electrical signal

• The applied force that causes strain is

• The bridge generates a voltage signal corresponding to the change

• The output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge can be given by the

✓ Hence, it causes a change in strain which also results in a

✓ This makes the bridge unbalance and hence, causes a change in

✓ From the measured voltage, the strain of the gauge can be

• The relation between force applied and spring deflection is

• When the load is applied, the spring stretches depending on

• Spring balances are widely used commercially.

• Used to carry heavy loads such as trucks, storage silos, etc.

• It measures the degree of hotness or coldness of an object and converts

• There are different types of temperature sensors available, each sensor

• It is a thermally sensitive resistor whose

• Thermistors are made up of ceramic

• Depending on the value of the temperature coefficient thermistor can

• The PTC type thermistor is further classified into two types.

• NTC has a negative temperature

• Typical Temperatures Ranges:

• Disk and chip thermistors – manufactured using metal surface contact.

• The resistance value can be measured using ohmmeter, which is connected

• Household electronics: washing machine, electric cooker, etc

• Air-conditioning: room temperature control

• Industrial process control

• It is commonly used in industry, homes, offices,

• It is a cost-effective temperature sensor which

• A thermocouple is also defined as a thermal

• The induced voltage, which is measured by the voltmeter, is a function of the

• They are segregated depending on the different combinations of alloy

• Each thermocouple has different characteristics, like different

• Depending on the application, cost, temperature range, stability, etc.,

• It has two leads, namely positive and negative lead.