Voltage Regulator Using Zener Diode

The power sources which we use may not be able to provide us constant voltage. This
may affect the proper functioning of the eletronic device. Zenerdiode is a special type
of diode having a sharp cut off voltage during reverse biasing. At cut off voltage it
conducts to large values of current, but voltage remains at constant values. Even the
input voltage varies or the external load varies, the output voltage remains at a steady
value. Such Zenerdiode voltage regulators are used mainly in voltage stabilizers,
T.V's etc.
In general, electronic circuits uses tubes or transistors for a source of d.c. power. In
pracitce, d.c power for electronic circuits is most conveniently obtained from
commericial a.c lines by using rectifier filter system called a d.c power supply.
An ordinary or unregulated d.c power supply contains a rectifier and a filter circuit.
The output from rectifier is a pulsating d.c. These pulsations are due to the presence
of a.c. component in the rectifier output. The filter circuit removes the a.c. component
so that steady d.c voltage is obtained across the load
Rheostat:-

A rheostat is an electrical component that has an adjustable resistance. It is a type of

potentiometer that has two terminals instead of three. The two main types of rheostat
are the rotary and slider. The symbol for a rheostat is a resistor symbol with an arrow
diagonally across it. Rheostats are used in many different applications from light
dimmers to the motor controllers in large industrial machines.
Rheostat Construction:-

Most rheostats are the wire wound type that have a long length of conductive wire
coiled into a tight spiral. The linear type has a straight coil, while the rotary type has
the coil curved into a torus to save space. The coild and contacts are sealed inside the
case to protect them from dirt, which can cause on open circuit and from moisture,
which can cause a short circuit. Rheostats can be made from other materials such as
carbon disks, metal ribbons and even certain fluids. As long as a material has a
significant resistance change over a short length, it can probably be used to make a
rheostat.
How Rheostat works:-
The basic principle that rheostats used is Ohm's law which states that current is
inversely proportional to resistance for a given voltage. This means that the current
decreases as the resistance increases or it increases as the resistance decreases.
Current enters the rheostat through one of its terminals, flows through the wire coil
and contact, and exits through the other terminal. Rheostat do not have polarity and
operate the same when the terminals reversed. Three terminal potentiometers can be
use as rheostats by connecting the unused third terminal to the contact terminal.
Principle

When the reverse bias on a crystal diode is increased, a critical voltage, called
breakdown voltage is reached where the reverse current increases sharply to a high
value. The satisfactory explanation of this breakdown of the junction was first given
by the American scientist C. Zener. Therefore the breakdown voltage is sometimes
called, Zener voltage and the sudden increase in current is known as Zener current.
The breakdown of Zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is
heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently the breakdown of the
junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other hand, a lightly doped
diode has a higher breakdown voltage. When an ordinary crystal diode is properly
doped so that it has a sharp break down voltage, it is called Zener diode
Requirements

• 6.2 V, 400 mW Zener diode.

• Unregulated Power supply of about 16 V

• Resistors

• 10 K? resistance box

• Rheostat

• Multimeter

• Circuit board etc.

Procedure :
• A Zene diode is like an ordinary diode except that it is properly doped so as to have
a sharp breakdown voltage.
• A Zener diode is always reverse connected, ie, it is always reverse biased.

• A Zener diode has sharp break down voltage, called Zener voltage .

• When forward biased, its characteristics are just those of ordinary diode.
• The Zener diode is not immediately burnt first because it has entered the breakdown
region. As long as the external circuit connected to the diode limits the diode current
to less than burn out value, the diode will not burn out
Observations

Conclusion :-

i) A voltage regulator using Zener diode is constructed and its load and line variation is studied .

ii) Zener Voltage is = 6.2 V

To Study the Variation of Electrical Resistance

ELECTROLYTES - Are substances which allow the passage of electricity through their molten
state or their aqueous solutions and allow chemical decomposition at the same time eg. Acids ,bases
and salts.

ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTION - There is a flow of electric current through the

electrolytes with the motion of ions which are formed due to the dissociation of some
molecules of the electrolyte.
OHM’S LAW – It states that under constant physical conditions such as temperature ,
pressure etc. the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the two ends of the conductor.
Mathematically,
V = IR
Where,
V = potential difference across the ends of the conductor,
I = electric current through the conductor and,
R=resistance offered to the path of the electric current by the conductor

Theory:
Using appropriate electrolytes and keeping the other factors constant , the
concentration of a particular electrolyte(CuSo) was varied by intervals of 1%.
Readings of resistances corresponding to different concentrations ranging from 1-
10% were taken.
Expected result – the resistance of the electrolyte solution is expected to decrease with increase
in concentration.
With increase in concentration , the number of ions due to dissociation of electrolyte increases.
Since the rate of flow of charge is directly proportional to the number of ions, hence conductivity of
the electrolyte increases and the resistance of the electrolyte decreases.

Requirements
Key , rheostat , voltmeter ,ammeter , connecting wires , glass vessels , copper
electrodes , measuring cylinders , physical balance , weights.
Procedure :
1. Apparatus is set up as shown , the vessel is cleaned and filled with 300ml of water.

2. 3gm of CuSo are weighed and dissolved in water , hence obtaining a concentration of 1%.

3. When the solution settles down and a constant temperature is attained, current is passed and three
sets of readings of the voltmeter and ammeter are taken by adjusting the position of the rheostat
after every set of readings.

4. The concentration of the electrolyte is increased to 2% by dissolving another 3gm of CuSo.

5. A set of three readings is taken by varying the resistance in the external circuit using the rheostat.

6. The concentration is stepped up each time by 1%in this manner up to 5%, and the readings for
each set are noted.
7. The mean value of resistance is calculated in each case.

8. A graph is plotted , which shows the variation of resistance with concentration of the solution.

Result :
Result of the experiment shows that the resistance of an electrolyte is inversely
proportional to its concentration. The conductivity of an electrolyte depends on the
number of ions per unit volume i.e. concentration of ions. As the concentration of the
solution is increased, the concentration of the ions and hence, the conductivity of the
electrolyte also increases. Therefore resistance which is the reciprocal of conductance
decreases with increase in concentration. This reasoning is supported by the results
obtained for this experiment.
Precautions
1. The electrodes used were thin plates of copper and they were always kept parallel to each other
inside the electrolyte.

2. After each reading, the solution was stirred an allowed to come to rest before
another reading was taken.
3. When variation of resistance due to one factor is measured, other factors affecting resistance must
be kept constant.

Sources of error :
1. While determining the resistance of electrolyte by using Cu electrodes, a small amount of the
metal was deposited on the cathode. This would have caused a slight change in the concentration
affecting the subsequent reading.

2. A small amount of oxygen is liberated at the anode which might have caused some polarization.
These effects can be minimized by passing small currents for short time.

3. The concentration of the electrolyte could not be varied in a range other than between 1%-5%
because beyond 5% concentration, it was not possible to take the readings and accumulation of
impurities caused disturbances.

AC Transformer
To investigate the relation between the ratio of:-
1. input and output voltage
2. number of turns in secondary coil of self designed transformer
Principle:
A Transformer based on the Principle of mutual induction according to this principle,
the amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil changing, an e.m.f is induced in the
neighbouring coil.
Construction:-
A transformer consists of a rectangular shaft iron core made of laminated sheets, well
insulated from one another. Two coils p1 & p2 and s1 & s2 are wound on the same
core, but are well insulated with each other. Note that the both the coils are insulated
from the core, the source of alternating e.m.f is connected to p1p2, the primary coil
and a load resistance R is connected to s1 s2, the secondary coil through an open
switch S. thus there can be no current through the sec. coil so long as the switch is
open.
For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistance of the primary & secondary
winding is negligible. Further, the energy loses due to magnetic the iron core is also
negligible.

Theory And Working

When an altering e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil p1p2, an alternating current
starts falling in it. The altering current in the primary produces a changing magnetic
flux, which induces altering voltage in the primary as well as in the secondary. In a
good-transformer, whole of the magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked with
the secondary, then the induced e.m.f. induced in each turn of the secondary is equal
to that induced in each turn of the primary. Thus if Ep and Es be the instantaneous
values of the e.m.f.’s induced in the primary and the secondary and Np and Ns are the
no. of turns of the primary secondary coils of the transformer and
Dфь / dt = rate of change of flux in each turnoff the coil at this instant, we have
Ep = -Np dфь/dt -----------------(1)
And
Es = -Ns dфь/dt ----------------- (2)

Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by dividing 2 by 1, we get
Es / Ep = - Ns / Np ----------------(3)
As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in the primary coil p1, so the
instantaneous current in primary coil is due to the difference (E – Ep ) in the
instantaneous values of the applied and back e.m.f. further if Rp is the resistance o,
p1p2 coil, then the instantaneous current Ip in the primary coil is given by Ip = E –
Ep / Rp
E – Ep = Ip Rp
When the resistance of the primary is small, Rp Ip can be neglected so therefore
E – Ep = 0 or Ep = E
Thus back e.m.f = input e.m.f
Hence equation 3 can be written as
Es / Ep = Es / E = output e.m.f / input e.m.f = Ns / Np = K
Where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.
In a step up transformer
Es > E so K > 1, hence Ns > Np
In a step down transformer
Es < E so K < 1, hence Ns < Np
If Ip = value of primary current at the same instant t
And Is = value of sec. current at this instant, then
Input power at the instant t = Ep Ip and
Output power at the same instant = Es Is
If there are no losses of power in the transformer, then Input power = output power
Or
Ep Ip = Es Is Or
Es / Ep = Ip / Is = K
In a step up transformer
As k > 1, so Ip > Is or Is < Ip
i.e. current in sec. is weaker when secondary voltage is higher.
Hence, whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in the same ratio. Similarly it
can be shown, that in a step down transformer, whatever we lose in voltage, we gain
in current in the same ratio. Thus a step up transformer in reality steps down the
current & a step down transformer steps up the current.

How to Wire a Step Down Transformer

Observe and identify the schematic and rating of the step down transformer to
be installed. Remove the terminal connection box cover placed at the lower
side of the transformer. Only the high amperage types will have this enclosure,
while lower powered transformers will have an exposed screw terminal.
Know termination identification follows for all step down transformers: H1,
H2, H3 and H4 signify the high voltage side or power feed end of the
transformer. This holds true regardless of the size of the transformer.
Interconnection of the transformer will vary depending on the manufacturer
and voltage used for feeding the transformer.
Terminate the feed power wires first by cutting the wires to length. If you are
using large wire lugs be sure to take into consideration the length of the lug and
the amount of wire that can be inserted into the female crimp area.
Strip back the outer insulating of the wires with the pocketknife or wire
strippers. Insert the eye ring or wire lug over the bare copper wire and crimp
the connection device, using the appropriate-size crimper, permanently to the
wire.
Terminate the high side, high voltage of the step down transformer. If the high
side terminals are bolts, be sure to follow any torque requirements that are
listed by the manufacturer.
 Terminate the low side, low voltage of the transformer. Note these terminals
will be identified by X1, X2, X3 and X4. Again follow the manufacturer's
individual schematics for that particular type of transformer. Note that on small
control transformers there will only be an X1 and X2. X1 is the power or "hot"
side and X2 is generally the grounding and neutral portion of the low voltage.
Terminate the small control transformer for X1 and X2. X1 will go directly to
the control circuit after passing through a small fuse that is rated for the circuit.
X2 will be terminated not only to the neutral side of the control circuit, but the
grounding safety as well. In other words, the X2 side of the small control
transformer must be tied to the grounding system of the electrical circuit.
Replace all covers on the transformer and any enclosures that protect you
from electricity. Apply the high voltage to the transformer by switching on the
feeder power circuit. Turn on the low side safety circuit control.
Use a volt meter to test for proper voltage on the step down side of the transformer. It
should be the same that is listed on the specs tag provided by the manufacturer.

Energy Losses:-
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a transformer:
1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper coils of a
transformer. This is due to joule heating of conducting wires.
2. Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the transformer.
This is due to formation of eddy currents in iron core. It is minimized by taking
laminated cores.
3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs inspite of best insulations. Therefore, rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of S1S2 is less than the rate of change
of magnetic flux linked with each turn of P1P2.
4. Hysteretic loss is the loss of energy due to repeated magnetization and
demagnetization of the iron core when A.C. is fed to it. 5. Magneto striation i.e.
humming noise of a transformer.
Conclusion
1. The output voltage of the transformer across the secondary coil depends upon the
ratio(Ns/Np) with respect to input voltage.
2. The output voltage of the transformer across the secondary coil depends upon the
ratio(Ns/Np) with respect to input current.
3. There is a loss power between input and output coil of a transformer.

The Liquid Lens

Aim is to find the refractive index of a) water, b) coconut oil using a plane mirror,
and an equiconvex lens made of glass and an adjustable object needle.
The theory behind liquid lens is based on the properties of one or more liquids to
create magnifications within a small amount of space.The focus of a liquid lens is
controlled by the surface of the liquid .Water normally forms a bubble shape when
adhered to materials such as glass.This desirable property makes water a very suitable
candidate for the production of liquid lens.Essentially the liquid must be transparent
so as to study its effects. To generate a liquid lens , a liquid is sandwiched between
two pieces of a clear plastic or a glass. Oil (necessarily transparent) can also be
chosen to be used as a fluid in a liquid lens system. The surface profiles of the liquid
determines the focal length of liquid lens system and how the liquid lens focusses
light rays.
Theory:
In optics, refractive index or index of refraction ‘n’ of a substance (optical medium) is
a dimensionless number that describes how light or any radiation propagates through
that medium.It is defined as
n = c/v
where’ c’ is the speed of light in vaccum and ‘v’ is the speed of light in a substance.
Eg : ‘n’ of water is 1.33, which means, light travels 1.33 times as fast in vaccum as it
does in water.
The historically first occurance of refractive index was in Snell’s law of refraction.

ie are the angles of incidence of the

ray crossing the interface between 2 medias with refractive indeces n_1 and n_2.
In this project, we shall make use of the property of liquid lens to find the refractive
index of water and coconut oil.
Requirements
A convex lens, plane mirror, water, coconut oil, an optical needle, an iron stand with
base and clamp arrangement, a meter scale etc….
Procedure :
• Finding the focal length of convex lens:-

• Place the plane mirror with the convex lens placed on it above the horizontal base
of a clamp stand horizontally as its tip lies vertically above the optic centre of the
lens. Adjust the needle at a height a little more than the rough focal length of the
convex lens.
• Bring the tip of the needle, at the vertical principal axis of the lens, so that the tip of
the needle appears touching the tip of its image.
• Move the needle up and down to remove the parallax between tips of needle and its
image.
• Measure the distance between tip of the needle and upper surface of the lens by
using a meter scale. Let it be (x1 ).
• Again measure the distance between tip and upper surface of the plane mirror. Let it
be x2
• Finding the focal length of the combination:
• Take a few drops of the given transparent liquid and place it on the surface of plane
mirror. The convex lens is placed over it as before. (A plano concave lens is formed
between plane mirror and convex lens).
• Repeat the steps (ii) to (v)

• Record the observations.

• To find the radius of curvature of the liquid lens. (R of convex lens surface in
contact).
The convex lens is turned towards a source such that, the required surface is away
from the source the distance is to adjusted that the image is, formed on the side of the
source. The distance 'd' between the source and the lens is measured. The radius of
curvature 'R' of the lens is given by

Finally the refractive index of liquid lens is given by.

n = 1+ R/f2
Result :
The observations of the experiment is tabulated as follows

Precautions
• The parallax must be removed tip to tip properly.

• The lens and plane mirror should be cleaned thouroughly.

• The liquid taken should be essentially transparent.

Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that the liquid lens layer is not thick
Sources of error :
• Liquid may not be quite transparent

• The parallax any not be fully removed

• The needle may not be properly horizontal

The distance x1 and x2 may not be essentially clean

The experiment described in this project is an effective and simple method of
measuring the refractive index of any liquid (transparent) using a convex lens and
plane mirror.
If we keep the mirror behind a lens and put an object at the focus point of the lens
above it, the image of the object will form at the same focus point where the object is.
If it is an extended object, its image will be inverted and the size of image is same as
that of the object.
This property has enabled the efficient use of liquid lens to find the refractive index
of a fluid by this method. If a liquid is sandwiched between the lens and the mirror,
the focal length of liquid lens can be calculated knowing the focal length of the
combination and that of the convex lens, from which the refractive index of the fluid
can easily be estimated .

Refractive Indices of Water And Turpentine Oil

To find Refractive Indices of Water And Turpentine Oil using a plane mirror, a
equiconvex lens (made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable
object needle
APPARATUS:
A convex lens, an optical needle, a plane mirror, a clamp stand, a spherometer, a
plumb line, metre scale, water and turpentine oil
Theroy :
Let's add small amount of water on a flat, plane surface and place a convex lens over
it. This forms a plano-concave lens of water between the lower surface of convex lens
and plane mirror.
Let f 1 and f 2 are the focal lengths of water lens and convex lens respectively, then
focal length of the combination is:

The focal length of the plano-concave lens is, .(i)

From Lens Maker's formula,

=(
R 1 = R and R 2 = for water lens.

The refractive index of water is , .(ii)

(where 'R' is the radius of curvature of the concave surfaces of the plano-concave
lens).
The Radius of curvature of the lens, is

.(iii)

PROCEDURE
• For finding the focal length of convex lens:
• Measure the rough focal length of the convex lens.

• Place the plane mirror with the convex lens placed on it above the horizontal base
of a clamp stand horizontally as its tip lies vertically above the optical centre of the
lens. Adjust the needle at a height a little more than the rough focal length of the
convex lens.
• Try to remove the parallax between the tip of the object needle and its image tip.

• Note the distance of the tip of the needle from the centre of the upper surface of the
lens. Let it be x 1. (Use plumb line).
• Remove the convex lens and measure the distance of the tip of the needle from the
plane mirror. Let it be x 2 . (Use plumb line).
2 (vi) Repeat and record all the observations.

• For finding the focal length of the plano-concave lens:

Pour few drops of water over the plane mirror and place the convex lens over it.
Repeat steps (ii) to (iv) as done above.Repeat the procedure with turpentine oil also.

• For finding 'l':

Determine the pitch and least count of scale of the spherometer. Place the
spherometer on the dried surface of the convex lens. Turn the screw downwards very
gently till the tip of the screw just touches the lens. Read and record the reading.
Keep the spherometer's legs on the base of a paper and adjusting the central screw,
find the pricks A, B and C of the three legs of the spherometer. Join the centres of the
three pricks and measure the lengths with the half-metre scale. Note the values of AB,
BC and AC
Conclusion
Pitch of the spherometer= 1 cm
Least count of the spherometer = 0.01 cm
Distance between the legs:
• AB = 3 cm

• BC = 3 cm

CA = 3 cm
To Demonstrate The Phenomenon Of Total Interval Reflection
A cylindrical glass trough, water in a fug, a circular plastic disc which can float in
water, a illuminating torch bulb which can be placed at the bottom centre of the
trough .
APPARATUS:
Faraday's apparatus, a galvanometer, two magnets of different strengths, a battery, a
tapping key
Theroy :
When light travels from a denser to a raser medium and incident in denser medium at
an angle more than critical angle 'C', then it is totally internally reflected.
For height 'h' and circle radius 'r'
Tan C=r/h or r=h tan C, no light will go out.
For a greater height light will be received outside the water

PROCEDURE

• Put empty glass trough on a table.

• Fit an illuminated tiny torch bulb at the centre of the trough. Bulb illuminating will
be seen.
• Pour some water in the trough and float the circular plastic plate in it, keeping its
centre in vertical line with trough centre. Illuminated water surface will be visible.
• Pour slowly more and more water. Area of illuminated water surface will go on
decreasing.
• Go on pouring water till no illuminated water surface is visible.

You will find that

r/h= tan C
for water C =48.6° and tan C = 1.13428.
Conclusion
Illuminated water surface totally disappeared when
h=r/tan C i.e., r=h tan C
The result is according to the theory.

To Determining the Time Constant for an RC Circuit

• To experimentally determine the time constant (t) of a slow RC circuit and verify
the value using the actual formula.
• To calculate the maximum charge attained by the capacitor, i.e. the charge attained by it in steady
state.
• To graphically represent the charging and discharging of the capacitor using the values obtained
This project is based on the analysis of a simple RC circuit and how the voltages across its
components vary with time. A resistor-capacitor circuit (RC circuit), or RC filter or RC network, is
an electric circuit composed of resistors and capacitors driven by a voltage or current source. A first
order RC circuit is composed of one resistor and one capacitor and is the simplest type of RC
circuit.
In this project, the focus is on slow RC circuits, the ones in which charging and discharging of the
capacitor take place in a notable amount of time. This makes it possible for the human eye to
observe the changes in the voltage and derive results from the readings. The various technical terms
and formulae have been explained in detail in the project's theory.
The project aims to experimentally determine the time constant of an RC circuit and verify the
results with existing formulae. Using the values obtained, the maximum charge on the capacitor
shall be determined and the capacitor's charging and discharging shall be represented graphically.
Requirements

• A Battery Eliminator of 10 V

• An Electrolytic Capacitor of 100 m F

• A Carbon Resistor of 220 k W

• A Voltmeter

• A Two-Way Switch

• Connecting Wires

• Stopwatch
Procedure :
• i. Obtain the components required for the circuit.

• ii. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with a sand paper.

• Connect the +ve terminal of the battery eliminator E to the common end of two way
switch S.
• iv. Connect the -ve terminal of E to the shorter leg of the electrolytic capacitor C.

• v. Draw a wire from the one of the ends of S and join it to the above wire to form a
junction.
• vi. Connect a wire from the capacitor side of this junction to ground ( 0 Volts ).

• Connect a wire from the longer leg of the capacitor to the resistor R.

• Connect the other end of R to the remaining end of S.

• ix. Connect the Voltmeter, V, in parallel across C to complete the circuit.

• x. To start the experiment, turn S to the upper position and switch on E. Wait till the
voltmeter reaches a steady value. Note that this value will be equal to 10V, the
voltage provided by E. When this happens, the capacitor is said to be in steady state.
• xi. Once the capacitor is fully charged, turn S to the lower position and start the
stopwatch.
• As the capacitor discharges through ground, the reading in V1 reduces gradually. As
the reading in V reaches a value of E (.368), stop the stopwatch and note its reading.
This is the value of one time constant.
• Turn S to the upper position again and start the stopwatch.

• Note the time when V displays a voltage of E (.632). This is the value of one time
constant taken while charging. Both the observed values should be about the same.
• Repeat discharging and charging three more times to get a total of 8 readings for the
time constant. Note them in the observations table, and find their average to compute
t.
• Calculate the theoretical value of t from RC and find the percentage error in
computing the experimental t.
• To find the maximum value of charge stored in C, multiply the voltage observed at
steady state with the capacitance.
• Find the percentage error again after calculating the actual value from CE.

• Repeat the charging and discharging processes to obtain the voltage values at 6
different time values for each.
• Plot these on graph paper.

Graph
i. Take two graph sheets and mark voltage (in volts) along the y-axis, and time (in
seconds) along the x-axis.
ii. Plot the readings under charging in one and discharging on the other.
iii. Join the plotted points with a smooth freehand curve.
iv. Both the graphs should be exponential in nature.
Result

1. Within Experimental Limits the Time Constant of the given slow RC circuit has
been determined as …………. s, with a percentage experimental error of
……………. .
2. The Maximum Charge on the Capacitor has been determined as …………… C.
3. The charging and discharging of the capacitor were represented graphically and
both the graphs turned out to be exponential in nature.
Precautions
• The insulation from the ends of the connecting wires must be removed properly and
the ends must be cleaned with sandpaper.
• All connections must be ensured to be tight.

• Readings involving the use of a stopwatch must be taken carefully and accurately.

• The polarities of all equipment used must be taken into account while connecting
the circuit.
• The Voltmeter must be connected in parallel across the Capacitor.