Operating Systems

 Definition: An Operating System (OS) is the main software that manages a

computer’s hardware and software resources.
 Primary Functions:
Process Management: Controls which programs run and allocates CPU time.
Memory Management: Ensures each application has the memory it needs.
File System Management: Organizes and stores files on the hard drive.
Device Management: Manages input/output devices like printers, keyboards, and
monitors.
 Why it’s Important: Without an OS, users cannot interact with or control the
computer hardware.
Types of Operating Systems
 Single-tasking OS: Designed to run only one application at a time (Example:
MS-DOS).
 Multi-tasking OS: Can run multiple applications at the same time, allowing
users to perform several tasks simultaneously (Examples: Windows, macOS).
 Single-user OS: Designed for one user to operate at a time (Example: Windows
10 on a personal computer).
 Multi-user OS: Supports multiple users accessing the same system (Example:
UNIX, used on servers to allow multiple users).
Single-tasking OS
Multi-tasking OS
Single-user OS
Multi-user OS
 Real-time OS (RTOS): Processes data immediately as it comes in, often used in
critical systems like medical devices and airplanes where response time is
crucial.
 Distributed OS: Connects multiple computers to work as one cohesive system,
sharing resources (Example: Google’s server network for fast data processing).
 Embedded OS: Designed for specific devices with limited functions like
microwaves, smartwatches, or automotive systems.
Real-time OS (RTOS)
distributed os
Embedded OS
User Interface of OS
 User Interface (UI): The way users interact with the OS.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Uses visuals like icons and windows to allow
users to interact with their computer. Examples: Windows, macOS.
Pros: Easy to use and navigate.
Cons: Uses more resources.
 Command Line Interface (CLI): A text-based interface where users type
commands. Examples: Linux Terminal, Windows Command Prompt.
Pros: Faster and uses fewer resources.
Cons: Harder to learn for beginners.
Utility Software in OS

 Utility Software: Programs that help maintain, protect, and improve the OS.
 Common Utilities:
 Disk Cleanup: Deletes unnecessary files to free up space.
 Antivirus Software: Scans and removes malicious software to protect the
system.
 Backup Utility: Creates copies of important files in case of data loss.
 File Compression: Reduces file size to save space or make files easier to
transfer (e.g., WinRAR, 7-Zip).
 Purpose: Utility software makes the computer run more smoothly and safely.
PC Operating Systems

 Windows: Most widely used OS for personal computers, known for its user-
friendly interface and wide software compatibility.
 macOS: Exclusive to Apple computers, known for its design, stability, and
strong performance.
 Linux: An open-source OS often used by developers, tech enthusiasts, and for
server management due to its flexibility and security.
Network Operating Systems (NOS)

 Network OS: OS designed specifically for managing network resources.

 Examples:
Windows Server: Manages resources and services across a network.
Unix/Linux: Used in many servers due to stability and security.
Novell NetWare: An early network OS popular in the 1980s and 1990s.
 Purpose: NOS enables resource sharing (e.g., printers, files) and centralized
management of network security and user accounts.
 Windows Server
 Windows Server is the
platform for building an
infrastructure of connected
applications, networks,
and web services. As a
Windows Server
administrator, you’ve
helped achieve your
business’ goals keeping the
infrastructure secure,
available, and flexible.
Windows Server has been
the foundation of
Microsoft’s ecosystem and
continues to power the
hybrid cloud network
today.
Unix/Linux
 Linux is an operating system that was developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991.
The name “Linux” originates from the Linux kernel. It is an open-source
software that is completely free to use. It is used for computer hardware and
software, game development, mainframes, etc. It can run various client
programs.
 Unix is a portable, multi-tasking, bug-fixing, multi-user operating system
developed by AT&T. It started as a one-man venture under the initiative of
Ken Thompson of Bell Labs. It proceeded to turn out to become the most
widely used operating system. It is used in web servers, workstations, and
PCs. Many business applications are accessible on it.
Novell NetWare

 Novell NetWare is one of

the most popular network
operating systems for PC
LANs and provides file
and print server
facilities. Its default
network protocol is
normally SPX/IPX. This
can also be used with
Windows NT to
communicate with other
Windows NT nodes and
with NetWare networks.
Networking Basics
 Definition: A network is a group of computers and devices connected to share
data and resources.
 Importance of Networking:
Communication: Allows instant communication via email, messaging, video calls.
File Sharing: Allows quick data transfer and storage access among connected
devices.
Resource Sharing: Shares printers, internet connections, and storage devices.
Types of Networks
 LAN (Local Area Network): Connects devices within a small area like an office,
school, or home. Generally fast and secure.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): Connects devices over large geographical areas,
such as cities or countries (e.g., the Internet).
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a larger area than a LAN but smaller
than a WAN, like a city or campus.
 PAN (Personal Area Network): Connects personal devices around an individual,
like a smartphone connected to a laptop via Bluetooth.
Network Structures

 Client-Server Network: A powerful central server manages resources; clients

(computers) request services.
Example: School computer labs where each PC accesses a central file server.
 Peer-to-Peer Network: All devices are equal and share resources without a
central server.
Example: Home networks where each computer can share files and printers.
Client-Server Architecture

 How it Works: The server hosts data and applications; clients access these
resources over the network.
 Advantages: Centralized control, better security, easy management.
 Example: Websites that store data on a server and deliver it to users
worldwide.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture

 How it Works: All computers are both clients and servers, allowing file sharing
directly between devices.
 Advantages: Simple to set up, no central server needed.
 Example: Small office networks or home networks where files are shared
among family members.
Network Media

 Network Media: Physical or wireless methods used to transfer data between

network devices.
 Wired Media: Involves physical cables like twisted-pair, coaxial, and fiber-
optic.
 Wireless Media: Uses radio waves, microwaves, or infrared signals.
Wired Network Media

 Twisted Pair Cable: The most common LAN cable, inexpensive but limited in
speed and range.
 Coaxial Cable: Used for TV and older internet connections; faster than
twisted pair but bulkier.
 Fiber Optic Cable: Transmits data as light signals, providing the highest speed
and longest range, but is costly.
Wireless Network Media

 Radio Waves: Used by Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, allowing wireless communication

over short to moderate distances.
 Microwaves: Used for long-distance communication, including satellite
internet.
 Infrared: Short-range communication often seen in remote controls, limited
to line-of-sight.
Network Hardware
 Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware component that connects a
computer to a network, either wired or wireless.
 Hub: A basic device that connects multiple computers in a network but
doesn’t manage data traffic effectively.
 Switch: Directs data to the correct device, making it faster and more efficient
than a hub.
 Router: Connects different networks, like a home network to the Internet,
and manages traffic.
 Access Point (AP): Connects wireless devices to a wired network, commonly
used for Wi-Fi.
 Modem: Converts digital data to analog for transmission over phone or cable
lines.
 Firewall: Protects the network by controlling incoming and outgoing traffic
based on security rules.
Data Communications
 Data Communication: The process of transferring digital or analog data
between two or more devices.
 Key Concepts:
 Sender: The device that originates the data (e.g., a computer or
smartphone).
 Receiver: The device that receives the data (e.g., another computer, server,
or mobile device).
 Transmission Medium: The channel through which data is transferred (e.g.,
cables, airwaves).
 Protocols: Rules that ensure data is transmitted and received correctly (e.g.,
TCP/IP for the Internet).
Importance of Data Communication
 Data Communication plays a crucial role in:
Messaging: Instant communication through emails, SMS, and chat apps.
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Technology that allows voice
communication over the internet (e.g., Skype, Zoom).
Online Gaming: Multiplayer games rely on fast data communication for real-time
interaction between players.
Remote Work: Cloud services and collaboration platforms enable remote teams
to communicate and share resources seamlessly.
Financial Transactions: Banks and payment systems rely on secure, fast data
transfer for transactions.
Challenges in Data Communication

 Speed: High demand for faster data transfer speeds (e.g., 4G and 5G
networks in mobile communication).
 Reliability: Ensuring data arrives without errors or corruption, especially
important for critical services like healthcare.
 Security: Protecting data from unauthorized access and cyberattacks (e.g.,
encryption, firewalls).
 Bandwidth: The capacity of the communication channel (too many users can
slow down the network).
Data Communication on
Telephone Lines
Modems and Analog-Digital Conversion

 Modem: Short for Modulator-Demodulator, a device that converts digital data

into analog signals (modulation) for transmission over telephone lines and
reconverts it back (demodulation) on the receiving end.
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion: Computers operate using digital data (binary).
When using a phone line, modems translate this data into analog signals that
the line can carry.
 Example: Dial-up internet uses modems to connect computers to the Internet
over phone lines.
Dial-up Modems

 Dial-up Internet: A connection that uses telephone lines to connect to the

internet.
 Speed: Very slow, typically only 56 Kbps.
 Limitations:
Can’t use the phone and internet at the same time.
Often suffers from slow connections and interruptions.
Has largely been replaced by broadband options like DSL and cable.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

 DSL: A type of broadband connection that also uses telephone lines but
operates at higher frequencies, allowing for faster data transfer.
 How It Works: DSL uses the unused frequencies on phone lines, so users can
access the internet and make phone calls simultaneously.
 Speeds: Can range from 256 Kbps to 100 Mbps, much faster than dial-up.
 Common Use: DSL is widely used for home internet connections.
Cable Modems

 Cable Modem: A device that provides internet access using the same coaxial
cables that deliver cable TV signals.
 Advantages over Telephone Lines:
 Offers much faster speeds, typically ranging from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
 Doesn’t interfere with phone calls.
 Reliability: Cable internet is more stable and provides higher bandwidth than
DSL.
 Common Use: Found in most homes for internet access and TV service
bundling.
Digital Data Connections

 Digital Connections: Transfer data in a purely digital format, which is binary

(1s and 0s).
 Key Features:
 Higher Speed: Faster than analog communication.
 Greater Accuracy: Less interference and error in transmission.
 Real-time Communication: Enables high-speed data for applications like video
conferencing, gaming, and streaming.
Broadband Connections

 Broadband: A high-speed internet connection that is always on and faster than

dial-up.
 Types of Broadband:
 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): Uses phone lines but offers higher speeds.
 Cable: Uses TV cables for internet, providing higher speeds.
 Fiber Optics: Uses light signals for the fastest and most reliable connections.
 Why It’s Important: Supports the high bandwidth demands of modern internet
usage (streaming, online gaming, video calls).
DSL and Cable Comparison
 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line):
Slower compared to cable but more widely available.
Speeds vary based on distance from the provider.
 Cable Internet:
Faster speeds due to the use of TV coaxial cables.
May slow down if many users are on the network at the same time.
 Comparison:
DSL is ideal for remote or rural areas where cable is not available.
Cable is better suited for high-demand users in urban areas.
Fiber Optic Broadband

 Text:
 Fiber Optic Cables: Transmit data as pulses of light through thin strands of
glass or plastic.
 Speed: Can reach up to 10 Gbps, the fastest internet connection available.
 Advantages:
 Speed: Much faster than DSL and cable.
 Reliability: Immune to electromagnetic interference, so it provides a stable
connection.
 Example: Google Fiber offers gigabit-speed internet in certain cities.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode): A networking technology designed for the

rapid transmission of data, voice, and video.
 How It Works: Splits data into small, fixed-sized packets called cells.
 Uses: Used in high-speed backbone networks to manage large amounts of data
traffic.
 Benefits: High speed, low latency, and support for both real-time and non-
real-time traffic (e.g., video conferencing vs. email).