BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

ECT 414

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 MODULE 1
• Introduction to bio-medical engineering, bio-medical
instrumentation system.
• Overview of anatomy and physiological systems of the body.
• Sources of bio-electric potential: Resting and action potential,
propagation of action potentials.
• Bioelectric potentials examples (ECG, EEG, EMG, ERG, EOG, EGG
concept only.)
• Electrode theory: Nernst relation, Electrode skin interface
• Bio potential electrodes: Microelectrodes, skin surface electrodes,
needle electrodes
• Instrumentation for clinical laboratory: Bio potential
amplifiers-instrumentation amplifiers, carrier amplifiers, isolation
amplifiers, chopper amplifiers

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 Biomedical Engineering

• Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering principles

and design concepts to medicine and biology.

• The biomedical engineering provides electrical, electronic,

electro-optical, and computer engineering support to clinical and
biomedical applications.

• Biomedical Engineering improves the field of healthcare diagnosis,

monitoring and therapy.

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Introduction to Biomedical Instrumentation System

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5
Major Components of Medical Instrumentation System

1. Energy Source
2. Measurand
3. Sensor / Transducer
4. Signal Conditioning
5. Output Display

Auxiliary Components
1. A calibration signal
2. Control and feedback signal

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1. Energy Source
• Used to energize the whole instrumentation system Examples:
Different sources used are electric, light, infrared, mechanical and
ultrasound
2. Measurand
• The physical quantity, property, or condition that the system
measures is called measurand.
Examples: Internal (Blood Pressure)
3. Sensor / Transducer
• The transducer is defined as a device that converts one form of
energy to another.
• A sensor converts a physical measurand to an electric output

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4. Signal Conditioning
• Simple signal conditioners may only amplify and filter the signal or
merely match the impedance of the sensor to the display.
• Often sensor outputs are converted to digital form and then processed
by specialized digital circuits or a microcomputer.
• For example, signal filtering may reduce undesirable sensor signals.
• It may also average repetitive signals to reduce noise, or it may convert
information from the time domain to the frequency domain.
5. Output Display
• The results of the measurement process must be displayed in a form
that the human operator can perceive.
• The best form for the display may be:
• a. Numerical

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 • b. Graphical
• c. Displacement
• d. Discrete or continuous
• e. Visual / Hearing
The processed signal after conditioning passed through
1. Alarm System: Indicate when measurand goes beyond a preset
limit.
2. Data Storage: To maintain the data for future reference
3. Data Transmission: Used to transmit the information obtained
from one location to another.

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Auxiliary Components

1. Calibration signal: with the help of this, measurand should be

applied to the sensor input.

2. Control and Feedback Signal: Required to bring out the measurand,

to adjust the sensor and signal conditioner, and to direct the flow of
output for display, storage or transmission. The control and feedback
may be automatic or manual.

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Bioelectric Potentials

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 Sources of Bioelectric potentials

• The systems in the human body generate their on monitoring

signals when they carry out their functions.

• These signals provide useful information about their

function.

• Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced as

a result of electro chemical activity of certain cell.

• Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials in to

electrical signals.

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 Resting and Action potentials

• Certain types of cells within the body , such as nerve and

muscle cells are encased in a semi permeable membrane.

• This membrane permits some substances to pass through

while others are kept out.

• Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids

• These fluids are conductive solutions containing charged

atoms known as ions

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 Resting potentials

• The principle ions are sodium(Na+) Potassium(K+) and

chloride(Cl-)

• The membrane of excitable cells permit entry of

Potassium(K+) and chloride(Cl-) ions but blocks the entry of
sodium(Na+) ions. So inside the cell is more negative than
outside cell.

• This membrane potentials is called Resting potentials

• This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect

to body fluids.

• So resting potential of a cell is negative. 18

 Resting potentials/Polarization

This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100
mv.

Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.
Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground
 Depolarization of cell

• When a cell exited, the membrane change its characteristic.

• The sodium ions are rushed in to the cell.

• At the same time potassium ions try move from inside.

• After a equilibrium state is reached, the sodium is moved

back to outside
 Depolarization of cell

Na+
Na+
Cell Membrane
Na+
+
K +
K
+
+ K
Na +
K
Na+
+
K +
K
Na+ K
+
K
+

Na+
Na+
Action potentials

Cell Membrane

V 20 mV

Ground
Generation of Action Potentials

• During the resting state, the membrane potential arises

because the membrane is predominantly permeable to K+.
• An action potential begins as a result of depolarization.
• During depolarization voltage-gated sodium ion channels
open due to an electrical stimulus.
• As the sodium ions rush back into the cell, their positive
charge changes potential inside the cell from negative to
more positive.
• If a threshold potential is reached, then an action potential is
produced. Action potentials will only occur if a threshold is
reached.
 Re Polarization

• Cell comes from de polarized state in to polarized state is called

Re polarization.
Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground
 Re polarization

• Once the cell has been de polarized the voltage-gated

sodium ion channels begin to close.
• The positive potential inside the cell causes voltage-gated
potassium channels to open and K+ ions now move down
their electrochemical gradient out of the cell.
• As the K+ moves out of the cell, the membrane potential
becomes more negative and starts to approach the resting
potential.
Resting and Action potentials
 Propagation of Action potentials
• An action potential is a
rapid sequence of changes
in the voltage across a cell
membrane.

• When a cell is excited it

causes ionic currents to
flow.

• This process excite

neighboring cells or
adjacent area of the same
cell.

• Thus causes the action

potential propagation
 The Bioelectric
Potentials
• ECG: An electrocardiogram — abbreviated as EKG or ECG — is a
test that measures the electrical activity of the heartbeat. With
each beat, an electrical impulse (or “wave”) travels through the
heart.
• EEG: An EEG, or electroencephalogram, is a test that records the
electrical signals of the brain by using small metal discs (called
electrodes) that are attached to your scalp.
• ERG: The electroretinogram (ERG) is a diagnostic test that
measures the electrical activity of the retina in response to a light
stimulus. The ERG arises from currents generated directly by
retinal neurons.
• EOG :Electrooculography (EOG) is a technique for measuring the
corneo-retinal standing potential that exists between the front
and the back of the human eye. The resulting signal is called the
electrooculogram. Primary applications are in ophthalmological
diagnosis and in recording eye movements.
ECG
EEG
EMG ERG
EGG
NERNST RELATION

• The relationship between the ionic concentration (activity)

and the electrode potential is given by the Nernst equation.

• When no electric current flows between an electrode and

the solution of its ions or across an ion permeable
membrane, the potential observed should be the half-cell
potential or the Nernst potential.

• If, however, there is a current, these potentials can be

altered.
Electrode -Skin Interface
Biopotential Electrodes

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 Definition
• Electrodes are devices that convert ionic potentials into
electronic potentials.

• The type of electrode used for the measurements

depends on the anatomical location of the bioelectric event
to be measured.

• In order to process the signal in electronic circuits, it will be

better to convert ionic conduction into electronic
conduction.

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 Electrodes classifications

Electrode
s

Polarize Non
d polarized
electrode electrode
s s

Micro- Body Needle

electrod surface electrod
e electrode e

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 A. Microelectrodes

• Microelectrodes are electrodes with tips having tips sufficiently small

enough to penetrate a single cell in order to obtain readings from
within the cell.
• The tips must be small enough to permit penetration without
damaging the minute cell.
• The main functions of microelectrodes are potential recording
and current injection.
• Microelectrodes are having high impedances in mega ohm range
because of their smaller size.

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 Types
• 1. Metal microelectrode
• Metal microelectrodes are formed by electrolytically etching the tip of
fine tungsten to the desired size and dimension.
• Then the wire is coated almost to the tip with any type of insulating
material.
• The metal-ion interface takes place where the metal tip contacts
the electrolyte.
• The main features of metal microelectrodes are
1. Very good S/N ratio
2. Strong enough to penetrate
3. High biocompatibility

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 2.Micropipette
• The micropipette type of microelectrode is a glass
micropipette with its tip drawn out to the desired size.
• The micropipette is filled with an electrolyte which should be
compatible with the cellular fluids.
• A micropipette is a small and extremely fine pointed pipette
used in making microinjections.
 B. Body Surface
Electrodes

• Surface electrodes are those which are placed in contact

with the skin of the subject in order to obtain bioelectric
potentials from the surface.
• Body surface electrodes are of many sizes and types.
• In spite of the type, any surface electrode can be used to
sense ECG, EEG, EMG etc.

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 1. Immersion electrodes:

• They are one of the first type of bioelectric measuring

electrodes.
• Immersion electrodes were simply buckets of saline solution in
which the subject placed his hands and feet.
• So it was not a comfortable type of measurement and
hence it was replaced with plate electrodes.

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2. Plate electrodes:
• These electrodes were
separated from subject’s skin
by cotton pads socked in a
strong saline solution.
• The plate electrodes have
generally smaller contact area
and they do not totally seal on
the patient.
• The electrode slippage and
displacement of plates were
the major difficulties faced by
these type of electrodes
• Since these types of electrodes
were very sensitive, it led to
measurement errors.

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3. Floating electrodes

• These types of electrodes can

eliminate the movement errors
(called artifacts) which is a main
problem with plate electrodes.
• This is done by avoiding any
direct contact of the metal with
the skin.
• So the main advantage of
floating electrodes is
mechanical reliability.
• Here the conductive path
between the metal and the
skin is the electrolyte paste or
jelly.

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4.Disposable electrodes:

• Normally plate electrodes, floating

electrodes etc can be used more than
one time.
• This requires the cleaning and
cares after each use.
• We can use disposable electrodes
which can be used only once and be
disposed after the use.
• These types of electrodes are now
widely used.

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5. Suction
electrodes:

• These type of electrodes are well suited

for the attachment to flat surfaces of
body and to regions where the
underlying tissue is soft, due to the
presence of contact surface.
• An advantage of these type of
electrodes is that it has a small
surface area.
• These types of electrodes are
mainly used for the measurement of
ECG.

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6. Ear clip & Scalp
electrodes:

• These type of electrodes are widely

used in the measurement of EEG
• Scalp electrodes can provide EEG
easily by placing it over bare head.
• The most common method for EEG
measurement is 10 – 20 electrode
placement system and here we use
scalp electrode usually.
• They can avoid measurement errors
and movement errors.

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 C. Needle
Electrodes:

• To reduce the interface and noise (artifact) caused due to

electrode movement, during the measurement of EEG
• we can use small sub-dermal needle electrodes which penetrate
the scalp.

• Actually the needle electrodes are not inserted into the brain.
They nearly penetrate the skin.

• Generally they are simply inserted through a small section of

the skin just beneath the skin parallel to it.

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• The needle electrodes for EMG measurement consist of
fine insulated wires placed in such a way that their tips
are in contact with the muscle, nerve or other tissues
from which the measurement is made.
• The needle creates the hole necessary for insertion and
the wires forming the electrodes are carried inside it.

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• One of the main advantage of needle electrodes is that they are
less susceptible to movement errors than surface electrodes.

• Also the needle electrodes have lower impedances when compared

to surface electrodes as it makes direct contact with the
sub-dermal tissues or intracellular fluid.
There are two types of needle electrode,

• Mono-polar Electrode: This type uses single reference electrode

placed on the skin.

• Bi – polar Electrode: This type has one reference electrode and

one active electrode.

Applications of Needle Electrodes

• Needle electrodes are mostly used in the measurement of EEG

and EMG signals.
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BIOPOTENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
 BIOPOTENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

• Biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and

low frequency.

• Therefore, to increase the amplitude level of bio

signals, amplifiers are designed.

• The outputs from these amplifiers are used for further

analysis and they appear as ECG, EMG, or any
bioelectric waveforms.

• Such amplifiers are defined as Biopotential

Amplifiers or Biomedical Amplifiers.
 Basic Requirements for Biological Amplifiers

1. The biological amplifier should have a high input

impedance value. The range of value lies between 2
MΩ and 10 MΩ depending on the applications. Higher
impedance value reduces distortion of the signal.
2. When electrodes pick up biopotentials from the human
body, the input circuit should be protected. Every
bio-amplifier should consist of isolation and protection
circuits, to prevent the patients from electrical shocks.
3. Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or
microvolt range, the voltage gain value of the amplifier
should be higher than 100dB.
4. Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant
gain should be maintained.
5. A bio-amplifier should have a small output
impedance.

6. A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and

noise.
7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of
amplifier should be greater than 80dB to reduce the
interference from common mode signal.

Types of Biopotential Amplifiers

1. Instrumentation Amplifier
2. Isolation Amplifier
3. Chopper Amplifier
4. Carrier amplifier
1. Instrumentation Amplifier
• In biomedical applications, high gain and the high input
impedance are attained with an instrumentation
amplifier.
• A 3-amplifier setup forms the instrumentation amplifier
circuit.
• The output from the transducer is given as input to the
instrumentation amplifier.
• To each input of the differential amplifier, the
non-inverting amplifier is connected
• They are combined together to form the input stage of
the instrumentation amplifier.
• The third op-amp is the difference amplifier, and it is the
output of the instrumentation amplifier.
• The output from the difference amplifier Vout is the
difference between two input signals given at the input
points.
 2. Isolation Amplifier

Input
• An isolation amplifier is a type of amplifier that provides
electrical isolation between its input and output circuits.
• The primary purpose of an isolation amplifier is to transmit
signals across a barrier, such as a physical barrier or isolation
barrier, while preventing any direct electrical connection
between the input and output sides.
• This isolation is crucial in applications where there is a need
to protect sensitive equipment, ensure safety, or avoid ground
loops.

• Isolation Barrier: The isolation barrier can take various forms,

such as optical isolation (using optocouplers or
opto-isolators), magnetic isolation, or capacitive isolation.
These methods ensure that electrical signals do not directly
pass between the input and output circuits.

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Applications:

• Industrial Applications: Isolation amplifiers are commonly

used in industrial settings where there is a need to measure
and control electrical signals in the presence of high
voltages, noise, or potential differences between different
parts of the system.
• Medical Devices: In medical equipment, especially where
patient safety is a concern, isolation amplifiers are used to
provide electrical isolation between the patient and the
monitoring or control systems.
• Power Monitoring: Isolation amplifiers are utilized in power
monitoring systems to measure high-voltage signals while
providing protection to low-voltage measurement circuits.
• Communication Systems: They are employed in
communication systems to transmit signals while isolating
different sections of the system, preventing interference and
improving signal integrity.
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• Isolation amplifiers are known as Pre-amplifier isolation
circuits.
• It provides electrical isolation for the safety of the
patient.
• It prevents accidental shocks and increases the input
impedance of the patient’s monitoring system.

Operation:
• The electrical signals are obtained with electrodes.
• The signals received goes to the amplifier block, where
signals amplification occurs.
• After amplification, the signal enters the modulation
block.
• When it goes to the isolation barrier, optical cable or
transformer can be used.
• If in case of optical cable, modulator output travels to
LED.
• The LED converts electrical signals into light energy.
• If the transformer acts an isolation barrier, modulator
output connects the primary winding of the transformer.
• Energy from primary transfers to the secondary winding
based on the mutual induction principle.
• At the next stage, secondary output enters the
demodulation block.
• Finally, the amplified demodulated signal is obtained.

• Example: ECG Isolation amplifier.

 3. Chopper Amplifier

• When recording biopotentials noise and drift are the two

problems encountered.
• Noise is due to the recording device and by the patient
when they move.
• Drift is a shift in baseline created due to various thermal
effects. A DC amplifier has a shift or sudden peak in the
output when the input is zero.
• Therefore, a chopper amplifier solves the problems of drift
in DC amplifiers.
• The name Chop means to sample the data.
• The amplifier circuit samples the analog signal. So it is
known as chopper amplifier.
• A chopper amplifier, also known as a chopper-stabilized
amplifier or auto-zero amplifier, is a type of operational
amplifier (op-amp) that uses a technique called "chopping" to
reduce offset voltage and offset drift.
• The offset voltage in an amplifier is an undesired voltage that
appears at the output even when there is no input signal.

WORKING
• Chopping Technique: The chopper amplifier periodically
switches between two different input voltage sources.
• One source is the actual input signal, and the other is a
reference voltage.
• This switching occurs at a high frequency, typically in the kilo
hertz range.

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• Offset Reduction: By rapidly switching between the input
signal and the reference voltage, any DC offset voltage
present in the amplifier gets modulated at the chopping
frequency.
• The output of the amplifier then contains both the desired AC
signal and the modulated offset.

• Demodulation: The modulated offset is then demodulated or

filtered out using additional circuitry.
• This demodulation process separates the AC signal from the
offset modulation, resulting in a much-reduced offset at the
output.

• Feedback and Amplification: The demodulated signal is then

amplified and fed back to the input in a closed-loop
configuration to further minimize the offset voltage.

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• The chopper technique is particularly effective in minimizing
the offset voltage and offset drift, making chopper amplifiers
suitable for applications where high precision and stability
are essential.
• They are commonly used in instrumentation amplifiers,
data acquisition systems, and other applications where
accurate signal processing is crucial.

• It's worth noting that while chopper amplifiers provide

excellent offset voltage reduction, they may introduce
additional noise and harmonic distortion due to the
chopping process

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• The first block chopper accepts the DC input signal and
converts them to an AC signal. The AC amplifier block
amplifies the chopped AC signal.

• Next, in the demodulator rectifier block, an amplified

chopped AC signal is converted to amplified DC signal.
• Chopper amplifier is classified into two types.
1. Mechanical
2. Non-mechanical choppers.

• The chopper converts DC or low-frequency signal to

high-frequency signal.
• An AC amplifier amplifies the modulated high-frequency
signal.
• The amplified signal is demodulated and filtered to
obtain the low frequency or DC signal.
Differential Chopper Amplifier

• A type of chopper used for EEG measurement is a

differential chopper.
• It has a transformer.
• A chopper vibrator connects the input of the
transformer.
• The center tap of the transformer acts as one of the
terminals for the input connector.
• The chopper switch acts as another terminal. AC coupled
amplifier provides the gain.
• The output from this amplifier goes to filter and
demodulator block. Finally, an amplified DC output signal
is obtained.