Course Material

Wind Energy Systems
By/ Amr Saleh

Introduction to Wind Energy
Renewable energy:
1. Sustainable energy
2. Clean energy
3. Less overall maintenance
4. Saving money for long term

Renewable energy
sources
Introduction to Wind Energy
Wind energy
Conversion of wind energy into electric energy
History development of wind energy systems:
 People have caught the

wind to propel their
boats for thousands of
years
 Around the 5th century,

the first recorded
windmill machine in
Persia
 By the 13th century, grain grinding mills were popular in most of
Europe
 The era of wind electric generators began close to 1900’s.
 In 1930s, Palmer Putman Machine was developed for producing
1.25 MW of electric power
 After the second world war, Wind turbines are developed
Gesder wind
turbine
 After that , Wind farms are developed for producing bulk

amounts of electric power
 Nowadays, Wind is the world’s fastest growing energy source
 At the end of 2019, Total installed wind power capacity
was 623 GW !!
Wind Energy : Pros & Cons
Advantages of wind energy:

1. Renewable energy
2. Reduce fossil fuel consumption
3. Reduce the cost
4. Creating many jobs
5. Efficient use of land space

Wind Energy : Pros & Cons
Disadvantages of wind energy :
1. Noise disturbance
2. Threat to wildlife
3. Wind can never be predicted
4. Suited to particular regions

Process of wind formation
What causes wind to blow ?

• When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, Air moves from higher to lower
pressure area resulting in winds with variable speeds
Why is the air pressure different from one place to another?

• The air pressure is essentially determined by temperature
What causes the wind to be stronger in places?

• the bigger the difference in air pressure between one area and the next, the
stronger the wind will be
Types of Wind Turbines
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)
1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)
 Horizontal axis of rotation
 Generator is placed on the

tower
 Two types
Upwind Downwind
turbines turbines
Upwind Downwind
turbines turbines
 Blades are in front of wind  Blades are behind the wind

 No shadowing effect  Shadowing effect
 Fewer power fluctuations  High power fluctuations
 Most dominant design  Used with small wind turbines
Different configurations of HAWTs :
Standard
design
Advantages of HAWTs :
 Stable
 Tall towers are used, So Strong winds can be captured
 High efficiency
 Self starting
Disadvantages of HAWTs :
 Maintenance is difficult
 Difficult installation
 Tall towers cause environmental problems
2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs) :
 Vertical axis of rotation
 Generator is placed on the

ground
 It can capture the wind
from all directions
Different configurations of VAWTs :
Savonius Type Darrieus Type Darrieus H-Type

Advantages of VAWTs :
 Omnidirectional
 Easy maintenance
 Light weight towers
Disadvantages of VAWTs :
 Blades are relatively close to ground where wind speeds are low
 Poor self-starting capabilities
 Overall poor performance, and not commercially used
Comparison between HA-WTs and VA-WTs

Rotor Solidity
 It is the ratio of blade area to the swept area of wind turbine
Solidity Weight Speed Torque

Low solidity wind turbine
( solidity = 0.1 )
High solidity wind turbine

( solidity = 0.8 )
Rotor Solidity
Item High solidity WT Low Solidity WT

Number of blades Large Small
Starting torque High Low
Speed Low High
Application Pumping water Electricity generation

Windmills Vs. Wind Turbines
Windmill:
 Used for grinding grains or

pumping water
 No need for gearbox
 Used in farms and

ranches
Windmills Vs. Wind Turbines
Wind turbine:
 Used for generating

electricity
 Gearbox is needed
 Used in area where

strong winds blowing
Sizes and Applications of Wind Turbines
Wind Turbines
Small Large
Intermediate
Small Turbines:
 Power rating (≤ 10 KW )
 Installed in “rural residential” on-grid and
off-grid applications
 Requires ( 4 m/s )average wind speed
 Applications : 1. Homes
2. Farms
3. Remote applications ( Water pumping or Telecom sites )
Intermediate Turbines:
 Power rating ( 10 – 500 KW )
 Can be used in Hybrid systems
 Distributed power
 Applications : Power generation for remote communities

Large Turbines:
 Power rating (500 KW +2 MW )
 Installed in “Windfarm” arrays
 Requires ( 6 m/s ) average wind speed
 Applications :
1. Central stations wind farms
2. Community power
Evolution of wind turbine height and output power
Wind Power Fundamentals
Power Available in Wind
Wind Power depends on:

• amount of air (volume)
• speed of air (velocity)
• mass of air (density)
V: velocity of wind stream (m/s)

A: Area that the wind stream flowing through (𝑚2 )
ρ: Density of air ( Kg/ 𝑚3 )
 Kinetic energy of the wind stream :

KE = ½ * m * 𝑽𝟐
 Power in wind stream is K.E per unit time:
𝐝(𝐊.𝐄) 𝐝𝐦
P= = ½* * 𝑽𝟐
𝐝𝐭 𝒅𝒕
 From fluid mechanics :
𝒅𝒎 𝑑m
=ρ*A*V = mass flux = mass flow rate
𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝑡
Pw = ½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟑
 Power 𝜶 cube of velocity

 Power 𝜶 air density
 Power 𝜶 rotor swept area
Power density : Power per unit area ( W/ 𝑚2 )

P = ½ * ρ *𝑽𝟑
Cubic Law
Power Extracted by Wind Turbine
• The turbine can’t extract all the power available in wind stream
40 %
100 % Pturbine 60 %
Pwind Rest of Pwind
Air flow
(V)
Power Extracted by Wind Turbine
Pt = Cp * Pw
Pt = Cp *½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟑
Pt : Power extracted by wind turbine

Cp : Output coefficient or Coefficient of performance or Power coefficient
ρ : Air density
A : Rotor area
V : Wind speed
Maximum Rotor Efficiency ( Cpmax)
Betz Model
Betz model
V>Vb>Vd
V: upwind speed ( wind speed before entering the turbine )

Vd: Downwind speed ( wind speed after passing through the turbine )
Vb: Wind speed at the plane of rotor blades
• To get Power extracted by the turbine ( Pt) or (Pb)
𝐝𝐦 𝐝𝐦
Pt = Pb = ½ * * 𝑽𝟐 - ½ * * 𝑽𝒅𝟐 (1)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
• To get force on turbine blades( Fb)
𝐝𝐦
Fb = 𝒅𝒕
* ( V- Vd )
Pt = 𝑭𝒃 ∗ 𝑽𝒃
𝐝𝐦
Pt= 𝑽𝒃 ∗ 𝒅𝒕
∗ ( V− Vd ) (2)
• By equating (1) & (2), we get :
𝐝𝐦 𝐝𝐦
½* * (𝑽𝟐 - 𝑽𝒅𝟐 ) = 𝑽𝒃 ∗ ∗ ( V− Vd )
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Vb = ½ * ( V – Vd ) (3)
𝒅𝒎
𝒅𝒕
= ρ * A * Vb (4)
• Using (3) & (4) in (2) , we get :
Pb = (ρ * A * Vb) * (Vb) * (V-Vd)
Pb = ρ * A * 𝑽𝒃𝟐 (V - Vd)
Pb = ρ * A * 𝑽𝒃𝟐 (V - Vd)
𝐕−𝐕𝐛
Let a= 𝐕
Vb = V (1-a) V-Vd = 2Va
Pb = ρ * A * 𝑽𝒃𝟐 (V - Vd)
𝑽𝟐 (1−a)𝟐 2Va
Finally,
Pb = 4a (1−a)𝟐 * ½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟑
We now that:
Pb = Cp * Pw
Cp = 4a (1−a)𝟐
 To maximize efficiency ( Cpmax) :
𝐝(𝑪𝒑) 𝟏
𝐝𝐭
=0 a=𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
Cpmax = 4 ( 𝟑)(1 − 𝟑 )𝟐
𝟏𝟔
Cpmax = 𝟐𝟕 = 0.593 Betz limit
 Maximum theoretical efficiency ow wind turbine is 59.3 %

Relation between (Cp) and (a) :
Cp
Cp = 4a (1−a)𝟐 Cp = 0.593
𝐕−𝐕𝐛
a= 𝐕
 At a = 0
1. V = Vb
2. Turbine is at no load
theoretically
a= 1/3
 At a = 1
a
1. Vb = 0
2. Turbine is at starting (at rest)
Tip Speed Ratio ( TSR )
TSR : It is the ratio of rotor tip speed to the wind speed
Rotor tip speed W .R

TSR = λ = =
wind speed V
W: angular rotational speed ( rad / sec )

R: Rotor radius
V: Wind speed
W = 2 .pi
60
.N
Relation between (Cp) and (TSR)
TSR = WV.R
 At High (TSR)
Rotational speed Wind speed
Turbulences will occur Efficiency (Cp) decreases

Cp = 0.593
Relation between (Cp) and (TSR)
TSR = WV.R
 At Low (TSR)
TSRopt
Rotational speed Wind speed
Too much winds will pass without

Efficiency (Cp) decreases
touching the blades(power loss)
Effect of Altitude on Wind Speed
(Impact of Tower Height)
Effect of ground drag :

 Winds move more slowly at ground level due to friction.
 Friction diminishes with height, so wind speed increases.
Effect of trees on wind speed
Obstruction of the wind by a small building
Relation between wind speed and height
v : is the wind speed at height H

v0 : is the wind speed at height H0 (often a reference height of 10 m)
α : is the friction coefficient
Relation between Wind power and height
P𝜶 𝑽𝟑
Air density
𝑷 ∗𝑾(𝒎𝒐𝒍) ∗𝟏𝟎−𝟑
ρair =
𝑹∗𝑻
ρ: Air density ( Kg/ 𝑚3 )

P : Air pressure ( atm )
Wmol : Molecular weight of air ( 28.97 gm / mol )
T : Temperature (Ko)
R : Ideal gas constant ( 8.2 * 10−5 𝑚3 .atm/mol. Ko)
Factors affecting air density 𝑷 ∗𝑾(𝒎𝒐𝒍) ∗𝟏𝟎−𝟑
ρair =
𝑹∗𝑻
1. Temperature
𝟏
ρ𝜶 𝑻
2. Altitude ρ𝜶𝑷
Altitude Pressure Density

Example on determining air density
 For a location where wind turbines are constructed

 The temperature is 30 degrees
 Air pressure is 1 atm
𝑷 ∗𝑾(𝒎𝒐𝒍) ∗𝟏𝟎−𝟑
ρ air =
𝑹∗𝑻
𝟏 ∗28.97∗𝟏𝟎−𝟑
ρ =
air
8.2 ∗ 10−5 ∗( 𝟑𝟎+𝟐𝟕𝟑 )
ρ air = 1.165 Kg / 𝒎𝟑
Torque in Wind Turbines
 Wind power : Pw = ½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟑
Wind power = Wind speed * Thrust force on the rotor

Pw = ½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟑 = V * F
F = ½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟐
 The rotor torque :

T=F*R
T = ½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟐 * R
 This torque is theoretical torque
 The actual rotor torque (TT) will be :
TT = Ct * ½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟐 * R
Ct : Torque coefficient
Relation between (Ct) and (Cp) :

Pt = Cp *½ * ρ *A *𝑽𝟑
𝑷𝒕
Cp = ½ ∗ ρ ∗A ∗𝑽𝟑 (1)
But , Pt = TT * W (2)
𝑻𝒕 ∗𝑾 𝑹
By substituting (2) in (1) , We get : Cp = ½ ∗ ρ ∗A ∗𝑽𝟑 x 𝑹
𝑻𝒕 𝑾∗𝑹
Cp = *
½ ∗ ρ ∗A ∗𝑽𝟐 𝑽
Cp = 𝑪𝒕 * 𝑻𝑺𝑹
𝑪𝒑
TSR =
𝑪𝒕
Important relations
1. Turbine power (Pt) and rotor rotational speed (N) at different wind speeds :
Important relations
2. Number of blades (NB) and Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) :

Wind Turbine Design
Components of Wind Turbine
Rotor Hub
Turbine blade
 The blade is the most distinctive and visible component

Aerodynamics design
Turbine blade
 Blade materials should meet the following criteria:
1. high strength to withstand strong loading of wind

Blade materials
2. high stiffness to ensure stability of the optimal • Aluminum
shape and orientation of the blade • Fiber glass
3. Low weight or density to reduce gravitational forces • Carbon fiber
composites
4. the ability to withstand environmental impacts
such as lightning strikes
Turbine blade
 Three blade wind turbine is the standard for large wind turbines
Fewer blades WT More blades WT

 High rotational speed  less Acoustic noise
 Low cost
 Uniform mechanical load
distribution
 Acoustic noise  Low rotational speed
 Asymmetrical mechanical load  High cost
distribution
Turbine blade
 Blade length is very important in increasing the power of the turbine

Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine
 Aerodynamic design of the turbine blade is required to maximize

the turbine efficiency
Airfoil shape of the blade :

How does airfoil shape create lift forces :
• Aerodynamic operating principle of the turbine blade can be

explained by Bernoulli’s Principle
Drag
LIFT
Angle of attack (𝜶): It is the angle between the wind direction

and the chord line
Lift forces : It causes the rotation of the blades and it is
perpendicular to the wind flow direction ( We want to make this
force BIG )
Lift forces : It is parallel to the wind energy direction ( we want to

make this force Small )
Relation between angle of attack and Lift coefficient
𝜶optimum
 At optimum angle of attack, the lift forces are maximum

Gearbox
1500 rpm
15 rpm
• Gearbox is used to raise the rotational speed to be suitable for the generator
to operate
Gearbox
Gearbox conversion ratio (rgb) : is designed to match the low speed of the
blades to the high speed of the generator
𝑵𝒈 𝟔𝟎 𝑭 ( 𝟏−𝑺)
rgb= 𝑵𝒕
= 𝑷.𝑵𝒕
Ng: rated speed of the generator
Nt: rated speed of the turbine
F: the rated frequency
P: no of poles for the generator
S: rated slip for the induction generator
• Example
 For 50 Hz , 4 poles induction generator
 Rated turbine speed = 15 rpm rgp = 100
Gearbox
General notes about gearbox
1. Gearbox with multiple stages can be used to achieve high

conversion ratio
2. Power losses occur in gearbox due to friction between bearing and

gear tooth
3. Gearbox efficiency varies from 95% to 98%
4. Gearbox is the major contributor to the cost of wind turbine installation

Gearbox
Gearbox efficiency and overall efficiency

Wind Turbine Generator
 The conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy is performed

by the generator
Wind Turbine Generator
Types of wind turbine generators
1. Squirrel cage induction generators (SCIG)
2. Doubly fed induction generators (DFIG)
3. Wound rotor induction generators (WRIG)
4. Permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)
5. Wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG)

Yaw Drive System
• The main function of the Yaw drive system is to make the rotor facing into the
wind when wind direction changes
Yaw Drive System
Components of yaw drive system

Yaw Drive System
Yaw control is not recommended for power regulations for the

following reasons :
1. High inertia of the nacelle
2. The captured power is insensitive to the yaw angle
3. High mechanical stresses on different parts of the turbine

Pitch Mechanism
Relation between angle of attack and Lift coefficient
Angel of attack Lift forces Rotational speed

Pitch mechanism :
• It enables the rotation of the blades along their longitudinal axis

, Hence angle of attach is controlled
longitudinal axis
OR Blade axis
Pitch mechanism :
 It provides another degree of control over the captured power
1. When wind speed is low ( below the rated wind speed )
Optimum angle of attack Maximize the captured power
2. When wind speed is high ( above the rated )
Change angle of attack Power regulation
3. When wind speed is extremely high ( may cause damage to the turbine)
Blades are pitched out Turbine is shut down (protected)

Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Pitch mechanism operation :
Braking Mechanisms in Wind turbine
Importance of Braking mechanisms in wind turbines :

 It essential for turbines to stop automatically in case malfunction of components.
 it is necessary to have an over speed safety system.
Types of braking mechanisms in wind turbines
1. Aerodynamic braking
2. Mechanical braking
1. Aerodynamic braking :
a) Pitch control braking
b) Pitching the blade tip
a) Pitch control braking
By using the pitch controller , angle of attack is

adjusted to make zero lift forces , then the
brake is done

• This is done by turning the blade tip by
90 from the longitudinal axis
• It is spring operated, so it can work in
case of power failure

• Very secure for stopping the rotor and
avoid damage
• Extremely safe
1. Mechanical braking :
• It acts as a backup for
aerodynamic braking
• It is preferred to be connected
to high speed shafts
• It should be designed to bring

the turbine rotor from any
speed to the parking mode
Tower and Foundation
• The tower supports the nacelle and the turbine rotor

• The tower provides the turbine rotor with necessary height Power cables
Min. tower height

(25-30) m
To avoid turbulence
Types of towers
1. Steel tube towers
• Most commonly used

• High cost
• Long life span
• Used in large wind turbines
2. Lattice towers
• Less steel than steel tube
• Constructed on site
• Require lots of inspection
• Easy transportation
• Not commonly used due to its
aesthetic look
3. Concrete towers
• Less use of expensive steel
• Quality problems with on-site concrete.

due to changing weather conditions
• Short life span

Foundation for wind turbines More challenging

Foundation For offshore wind turbines:
Tripod foundation
Jacket foundation
Semi – submersible
foundation
Tension leg foundation

Power Characteristics of Wind turbines
Wind Turbine Power Curve
• Cut in speed (Vci) : The wind speed at which the turbine starts
producing power
• Rated speed (Vrated) : The wind speed at which the turbine

produces rated power ( nominal power of the generator)
• Cut out speed (Vco) : The wind speed at which the turbine
stops producing power
 Effect of the generator size on wind turbine power curve
( same turbines but different generators )
Generator 2 > Generator 1

 If we increase the generator size :
• Rated power increases
• Cut in speed increases
• Cut out speed remains constant
• Power at lower wind speeds

remain constant
• Power at high wind speeds

increases Generator 2 > Generator 1
 Effect of rotor diameter on wind turbine power curve
( same generators but different turbines )
 If we increase the rotor diameter :
• Rated speed decreases
• Power at lower wind speeds

increase
• Power at high wind speeds

remains constant
Power Regulation in Wind turbines
• From (Vrated ) to (Vco) : Power regulation is required

 Function of power control (power regulation) in wind turbine
• Keep the generator with its speed and torque limits and Rotor
and tower within strength limits,
• Enable maintenance
• Reduce noise
• Protect the turbine from harm
 Methods for power regulation in wind turbines
1. Stall regulation ( stall control )
2. Pitch regulation
3. Furling regulation
Stall Regulation
Passive Stall regulation Active Stall regulation
1. Passive Stall regulation
Turbulences
Passive stall
1. When wind speed is below the rated value
• the blade is fixed onto the rotor hub at an optimal (rated)

angle of attack
• the turbine blades with the rated angle of attack can capture
the maximum possible power from the wind
2. When wind speed is beyond the rated value
• With the wind speed exceeding the rated value, the strong wind can
cause turbulence on the surface of the blade not facing the wind
• the lifting force will be reduced and eventually disappear with

the increase of the wind speed ( passive stall occurs )
• The turbine rotational speed decreases , and power regulation

is achieved
Notes about passive stall control
• The blade profile is aerodynamically designed to ensure that
stall occurs only when the wind speed exceeds the rated value
• the blades for large wind turbines are usually twisted along
the longitudinal axis by a couple of degrees To ensure that the
blade stall occurs gradually rather than abruptly
Notes about passive stall control
• The passive-stall-controlled wind turbines do not need

complex pitch mechanisms, but the blades require a complex
aerodynamic design
• The passive stall may not be able to keep the captured power
at a constant value (rated power). It may exceed the rated
power at some wind speeds, which is not a desirable feature
2. Active stall regulation
• In active-stall turbines, the stall phenomenon can be induced not

only by higher wind speeds, but also by increasing the angle of
attack of the blade
Active stall

angle of attack
• the blades are controlled to turn more into the wind by increasing
the angle of attack by using the pitch control mechanism
• the lifting force will be reduced and eventually disappear with

the increase of the angle of attack
• Active stall occurs , and power regulation is achieved

Active stall regulation
2. Pitch regulation
• Pitch regulation by reducing the angle of attack, turning the
blades (pitching) gradually out of the wind

angle of attack
• the blades are controlled to turn out of the wind by decreasing the
angle of attack by using the pitch control mechanism
• the lifting force will be reduced and eventually The blades are
fully pitched
• Pitch regulation occurs , and power regulation is achieved

Active stall regulation vs. Pitch control
Active stall regulation Pitch regulation
based on rotating actions on based on rotating actions on

the blade the blade
turns the blades into the wind turns the blade out of the
, turbulences occur wind
increase the angle of attack decrease the angle of attack
Reducing the lift forces Reducing the lift forces

Active stall regulation vs. Pitch regulation
Furling regulation
• Moving the axis out of the direction of the wind decreases angle of attack and
cross-section
Furling regulation
• spring-loaded hinge is placed below the alternator

with a weight out the front
• In lower speed wind, The spring and weight keep the

blades at the vertical position
• If the wind gets strong enough, the top is forced back

against the weight and hinge, pulling the blades up
out of the wind and slowing them down.
MPPT Control
From Wind power curve :

Generator control mode MPPT control
Pitch control mode
Parking mode
MPPT Control
Relation between turbine power and rotational speed at different wind speeds :
MPPT Control
• The trajectory of MPPs represents a power curve, which can be described by

Pm𝜶 𝑾𝒎𝟑
• The mechanical power captured by the turbine can also be expressed in

terms of torque
Pm= 𝑻𝒎. 𝑾𝒎
• So, the turbine mechanical torque can be described by :

Tm𝜶 𝑾𝒎𝟐
Tm= 𝑲𝒐𝒑𝒕. 𝑾𝒎𝟐

Implementation of MPPT control
Wind Farms
What are Wind Farms ?
• A 'wind farm' is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for
production of electric power.
• Individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually 34.5 kV)
power collection system
• At a substation, this medium-voltage electrical power is increased in voltage with

a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission system
 Typical layout of a wind farm
• When several turbines are installed in clusters, the turbulence due to the
rotation of blades of one turbine may affect the nearby turbines.
• In order to minimize the effect of this

rotor induced turbulence, a spacing of
3 DT to 4 DT is provided within the
rows, where DT is the rotor diameter.
Similarly, the spacing between the
rows may be around 10 DT
 Typical layout of a wind farm
Types of Wind Farms
Types of Wind Farms :
1. Onshore wind farms
2. Nearshore wind farms
3. Offshore wind farms

Types of Wind Farms
• Onshore turbine
installations in hilly or
mountainous regions tend
to be on ridgelines generally
three kilometers or more
inland from the nearest
shoreline
Types of Wind Farms
• (Gansu wind farm) in china

is the largest onshore wind
farm in the world with 6.8
GW total power capacity !!
Gansu Wind farm

Types of Wind Farms
1. Nearshore wind farms
• Nearshore turbine
installations are on land
within three kilometers of a
shoreline or on water within
ten kilometers of land
Types of Wind Farms
• Offshore wind development

zones are generally considered
to be ten kilometers or more
from land
• off-shore wind farms take the

advantage of strong winds
blowing over the surface of an
ocean or lake
Types of Wind Farms
• (Walney wind farm) in

United Kingdom is the
largest offshore wind farm
in the world with 659 MW
total power capacity !!
Walney Wind farm

Siting of Wind Farms
• Selecting the best suitable location for the development of wind power plants
means siting of wind farms
• Placing turbines to take advantage of the best wind resources must be balanced
with minimizing their impact on existing land uses, neighbors, and the
environment
Factors affecting wind farm siting :
1. Wind speed
2. Land use
3. Aesthetic impact
4. Sound impact
5. Environmental impact
6. Construction impact
1. Wind speed
 Wind Power 𝜶 Cube of wind speed
 The faster wind speed , The more electricity

the wind turbine will generate
 Wind potential maps provide information for

the distribution of the average wind speeds
over any area
Cubic Law
2. Land use
 Wind turbines require large open spaces

to avoid turbulence
 Developers must consider the size and

placement of construction areas and
electric equipment foundation
3. Aesthetic impact
• People may see the development of wind farms has a negative impact on the
aesthetic view
3. Aesthetic impact
• Developers should avoid using wind turbines as a

means for elevating advertising billboards
• Developers should avoid shadow flicker effect

4. Sound impact
• A common concern raised by community members is the potential impact from
turbine-generated sound
5. Environmental impact
• Wind farms can be seen as a threat to wildlife
6. Construction impact
Wind Recourse Assessment
• The process by which wind power developers estimate the future energy
production of a wind farm .
Wind Resource Assessment :
1. Wind resource maps

2. On-site measurements
3. Calculations
4. Software applications
1. Wind resource maps
• High resolution mapping of wind power resource should be used
• Wind prospecting can begin with the use of such maps

2. On-site measurements
• To estimate the energy production of a wind farm, developers must first
measure the wind on site
• meteorological towers are used

for on-site measurements
• For long-term measurements ,

weather stations are used
meteorological tower
3. Calculations :
• The following calculations are needed to accurately estimate the energy
production of a proposed wind farm project:
 Correlations between onsite meteorological towers

 Correlations between long term weather stations and onsite
meteorological towers
 Wind shear and the optimal height for the wind turbine
 Wind flow modeling to extrapolate wind speeds across a site
 Energy production using a wind turbine manufacturer's power curve

 Application of energy loss factors
 wind turbine availability

 electrical losses
 high wind speed shutdown
 high/low temperature shutdown
 blade degradation from ice/dirt/insects
 Disturbances due to grid issues
4. Software applications:
 Wind data management software
 Wind data analysis software
 Wind flow modeling software
 Wind farm modeling software

Wind Data Analysis
Wind Speed Duration Curves
• Wind speed duration curve is used to know exactly how often

the wind blows how strongly
Wind data can be expressed in the form of two curves
Curve (1): accumulative curve Curve (2): Frequency distribution curve

Curve (1) : accumulative curve
• For time (t2 – t1 )

• The wind speed ranges from V2 to V1
• t1 : Time duration for wind speed ≥ V1

• t2 : Time duration for wind speed ≥ V2
Curve (2) : (probability curve) , ( frequency distribution curve )
• T1 : Time duration for wind speed = 1 m/s

• T2 : Time duration for wind speed = 3 m/s
• For wind speed range 0 – 1 m/s
• Frequency % = 2.75
• Time duration in a year = 2.75% * 8760
= 241 hrs/year
Weibull distribution of wind
• Weibull distribution function provides a good fit with the
measured wind data
Weibull distribution function:
V : wind speed ( m/s )

F(v) : frequency % or probability
C : the Weibull scale parameter (C = 1.12 * Vaverage )
K : the Weibull shape factor K:(1–3)
Weibull distribution at different values of K :
Actual data Vs. Weibull distribution
Example :
The Weibull parameters at a given site are c = 6 m/s and k = 1.8.
Estimate the number of hours per year that the wind speed will be
between 6.5 and 7.5 m/s.
Solution
• K = 1.8
• C = 6 m/s
• v = 7 m/s
• the number of hours per year with wind speeds in this interval
would be: 0.0907*8760= 794 hr.
Energy & Capacity Factor Calculation
1. Energy calculation
Energy = ෌ (𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 ∗ 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 )
 To calculate the energy production from a wind turbine, we need TWO
characteristics:
(a) Wind turbine power c/c’s (b) Wind speed duration curve
2. Capacity factor :
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂 𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅
C.F =
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓

C.F =
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 ∗𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟎
Simple example for more clarification 2 MW
• If we have a 2 MW wind turbine
 Rated energy (theoretical energy) = rated power * 8760

= 2MW * 8760 = 17520 MWH
 But actual energy = 4000 MWH due to fluctuations in wind power
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
 C.F =
𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎
= 0.2283
Complete examples on determining the total
energy production of wind turbine
Example (1) :
• For a good site under study for wind energy project. The statistical
studies at that site gave the speed duration curve as shown.
 Determine the annual energy extracted from a wind turbine
generator placed at that site and has the following output
power characteristics:
• Generator size = 600 KW (rated power)

• Cut in speed = 5 m/s
• Rated speed = 8 m/s
• Cut out speed = 20 m/s
• From 5 m/s to 8 m/s , the power c/c’s is linear
Solution
• We can draw the wind turbine power curve
 From 0 to 5 m/s P=0

 From 5 m/s to 8 m/s P = 200 (V-5) KW
 From 8 m/s to 20 m/s P = 600 KW
 Beyond 20 m/s P=0
Wind Time Power (KW) Energy
Speed (hours) (KWH)
7 220 200 * (7-5) = 400 KW 400 * 220
9 600 600 KW 600 * 600
11 700 600 KW 600 * 700
13 960 600 KW 600 * 960
15 650 600 KW 600 * 650
17 300 600 KW 600 * 300
෍ = 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑴𝑾𝑯
 Annual actual energy production = 2014 MWH
 Rated energy production = rated power * 8760 = 5256 MWH

• C.F =
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟒
• C.F = = 0.38
𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟔
Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS)
Main Components of WECS
• Turbine rotor converts wind energy into mechanical energy at

low rotational speeds
• Gearbox is used to adapt the rotor speed to generator speed to

generate 50/60 Hz electricity
• The generator converts the mechanical energy to electric energy

along with the power electronic converter
• Power electronic converter is used for producing high quality

power with desirable voltage and frequency
• Step up transformer is used to raise the voltage to be connected

with the transmission and utility grid
• Electric power is transmitted and distributed to the load centers

Power electronic converter :
• Power electronic converter is the interface between the

generator and the utility grid nowadays
 Rotor side Converter :

• It controls the stator currents and the active power to the grid
• It adjusts the rotational speed
• Extract the maximum power from the turbine (MPPT control)
 Grid side Converter :

• It controls the reactive power at grid terminals
• Adjust the voltage and frequency at fixed values
• Minimize the harmonic distortion
Types of Generators Used in Wind Energy Systems
Synchronous Generator (SG) Induction Generator (IG)
(1) Synchronous Generator
Utility grid
Two conditions for SG to produce electric power :
1. Input mechanical power (wind turbine rotor)
2. Separate DC source for magnetic field (excitation)
 If the two conditions are provided, SG produces electricity

• The produced electric power from SG has a frequency according to
the following relation :
𝑷. 𝑵
F= 𝟔𝟎
P : number of pole pairs of the generator
N : Generator speed (rpm)
F : Generator frequency
• The generator rotational speed should be adjusted to produce
rated frequency 50/60 Hz
Example :
 For 4 poles SG , to produce electric power with 50 Hz frequency
𝑷. 𝑵 𝟐. 𝑵
F= 𝟔𝟎
50= 𝟔𝟎
N = 1500 rpm
(2) Induction Generator
𝟔𝟎 𝑭
Ns = 𝑷
Active power (P)
reactive power (Q)
Two conditions for IG to produce electric power :
1. The generator speed is turned faster than the synchronous speed (Ns)
2. Magnetic field ( excitation ) : So the induction generator

consumes reactive power from the grid
 If the two conditions are provided, IG produces electricity

Induction generator is most used rather than synchronous generator
in wind turbine systems due to the following reasons :
o No need for external excitation

o Easy in maintenance
o Less expensive
o SG needs to be synchronized with the grid
WECS Configurations
Variable speed turbines Fixed speed turbines
Single speed WECS Two speeds WECS
Wound rotor Squirrel cage IG DFIG with SG with full

IG with Rext. with full capacity reduced capacity capacity power
power converters power converters converter
Fixed speed WECS
 The fixed-speed wind energy systems can be divided into :
1. Single-speed WECS : the generator operates at only one fixed speed
2. Two-speed WECS :the generator can operate at two fixed speeds.
1. Single speed WECS :

Example
• If the wind turbine rotates at rated speed = 15 rpm
• We have a 4-pole squirrel cage induction generator is connected
to the grid with frequency 50 Hz
 Synchronous speed will be 1500 rpm

 Gearbox ratio should be 1:100
Advantages
• simple structure
• Low cost, and reliable operation
Disadvantages
• It has lower energy conversion efficiency since it can achieve the
maximum efficiency only at one given wind speed.
2. Two speeds WECS :
• It is developed to improve the energy conversion efficiency
• The generator can operate at two different speeds
How ?
 The speed of the generator changes with the number of
stator poles
 The number of poles can be changed by reconfiguring the stator
winding through appropriate parallel and series connection of
the stator coils
Example
• If we have induction generator connected to a grid with 50 Hz
frequency
• With the number of poles switched from four poles to six poles
4 poles 6 poles
 P=2 𝟔𝟎 𝑭  P=3 𝟔𝟎 𝑭
Ns = Ns = 𝑷
 F = 50 Hz 𝑷  F = 50 Hz
 Ns = 1500 rpm  Ns = 1200 rpm
The generator connected can operate at slightly higher than

1500 rpm and 1200 rpm
Implementation of Two speeds WECS
1. Single shaft configuration
2. Dual shaft configuration

Variable Speed WECS
1. Wound-Rotor Induction Generator with External Rotor Resistances.
2. SCIG Wind Energy Systems with Full- Capacity Power Converters.
3. Doubly Fed Induction Generator WECS with Reduced- Capacity

Power Converters
4. Synchronous generator WECS with full capacity power converters

1 .Wound-Rotor Induction Generator with External Rotor Resistances.
• The external rotor resistance, is made adjustable by a converter

composed of a diode bridge and an IGBT chopper
• The equivalent value of Rex, seen by the rotor varies with the
duty cycle of the chopper.
• With different values of Rext, the generator can operate at
different operating points
• For different speeds, the generator can produce the rated

constant power
Advantages
• low cost
• simplicity
Disadvantages
• Slip rings and brushes are used

• More maintenance is required
• Heat dissipation in the external resistance
• introduces a small speed range, usually less than 10% of the

rated speed.
2. SCIG Wind Energy Systems with Full- Capacity Power Converters.
• At any operating speed, the output electric power can be controlled

using the power converter with full capacity
• The power electronic converter should withstand the power rating
of the wind turbine
Advantages
• More reliable and controllable output power
• High energy conversion efficiency at any operating speed
Disadvantages
• High cost
• Full capacity of the power electronic converter

3. Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) WECS with
Reduced- Capacity Power Converters
 The variable-speed DFIG wind energy system is one of the main

WECS configurations in today's wind power industry.
 The stator is connected directly to the grid
 The rotor is connected to the grid through power electronic

converter
70 % of power
30 % of power
 The power electronic converter is bidirectional and can pass

power in either direction
 The power electronic converter is used with reduced capacity
 The speed range of the DFIG wind energy system is around ±30%,
which is 30% above and 30% below synchronous speed
 The grid frequency is decoupled from the rotor frequency
 The rotor frequency is adjusted to extract the maximum

power from the turbine at variable speeds of the turbine
 The power electronic converters have the capabilities to generate

or absorb the reactive power (Q) to control the reactive power
and hence the voltage at grid terminals
Advantages
• The use of reduced-capacity converters results in reduction in
cost, weight, and physical size as well
• the energy conversion efficiency of the DFIG wind turbine is
greatly enhanced
• (+ 30% & -30% ) of synchronous speed ranges are obtained
• Sub-synchronous speed & Super-synchronous speed operation

is possible
• Filters are used to reduce harmonics

Disadvantages
• Slip rings wear and tear maintenance
• Complex control
• Large stator peak currents & high torque peaks in case of faults ,
the power electronic converter should be protected
Synchronous generator can be one of two types :
1. Permanent magnet Synchronous generator (PMSG)
2. Wound rotor Synchronous generator (WRSG)

• The use of the power electronic converter is a must
• The use of the gearbox is optional …. WHY ?

 For SG , we can increase the number of poles of the generator
𝑷 ∗ 𝑵
F = 𝟔𝟎
Wind Energy Supply Chain
Blade manufacturing Nacelle manufacturing
Tower manufacturing
Foundation
Turbine erection
Careers In Wind Energy
 Wind energy supply chain

1. Manufacturing phase
2. Project development phase
3. Operation and maintenance phase
 Careers in wind power

1. Occupations Relevant to the Manufacturing Phase
2. Occupations Relevant to the Project Development Phase
3. Occupations Relevant to the Operation & Maintenance Phase
 Occupations Relevant to the Manufacturing Phase
Engineers Manufacturing workers

 Aerospace Engineers  Mechanists
 Civil Engineers
 CNC operators
 Electrical Engineers
 Electronic Engineers  Assemblers
 Environmental Engineers
 Welders
 Industrial Engineers
 Materials Engineers  Quality control inspectors
 Mechanical Engineers
 Occupations Relevant to the project development Phase
1. Land acquisition specialist
2. Asset managers Atmospheric scientists
3. Logisticians
Wildlife biologists
4. Scientists
Geologists
5. Construction workers
6. Project managers Environmental scientists

Careers In Wind Energy
 Occupations Relevant to the operation & maintenance Phase
Wind turbine Technicians

(Wind Techs)
Regular maintenance Complex repairs Site administration

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Wind Energy Systems

By/ Amr Saleh

3. Less overall maintenance

4. Saving money for long term

 People have caught the

 Around the 5th century,

 After that , Wind farms are developed for producing bulk

Advantages of wind energy:

2. Reduce fossil fuel consumption

3. Reduce the cost

4. Creating many jobs

5. Efficient use of land space

Disadvantages of wind energy :

3. Wind can never be predicted

4. Suited to particular regions

What causes wind to blow ?

Why is the air pressure different from one place to another?

What causes the wind to be stronger in places?

1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

 Horizontal axis of rotation

 Generator is placed on the

 Blades are in front of wind  Blades are behind the wind

Different configurations of HAWTs :

2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs) :

 Vertical axis of rotation

 Generator is placed on the

Different configurations of VAWTs :

Savonius Type Darrieus Type Darrieus H-Type

Comparison between HA-WTs and VA-WTs

Solidity Weight Speed Torque

High solidity wind turbine

Item High solidity WT Low Solidity WT

Starting torque High Low

Speed Low High

Application Pumping water Electricity generation

 Used for grinding grains or

 No need for gearbox

 Used in farms and

 Used for generating

 Used in area where

 Power rating ( 10 – 500 KW )

 Can be used in Hybrid systems

 Applications : Power generation for remote communities

 Requires ( 6 m/s ) average wind speed

Wind Power depends on:

V: velocity of wind stream (m/s)

 Kinetic energy of the wind stream :

 Power in wind stream is K.E per unit time:

 From fluid mechanics :

 Power 𝜶 cube of velocity

Power density : Power per unit area ( W/ 𝑚2 )

Pt : Power extracted by wind turbine

V: upwind speed ( wind speed before entering the turbine )

• To get force on turbine blades( Fb)

• Using (3) & (4) in (2) , we get :

Pb = (ρ * A * Vb) * (Vb) * (V-Vd)

Vb = V (1-a) V-Vd = 2Va

 Wind power : Pw = ½ * ρ A 𝑽𝟑