Unit I: Data Mining

What is Data Warehousing?

It is a technology that aggregates structured data from one or
more sources so that it can be compared and analyzed rather
than transaction processing. A data warehouse is designed to
support the management decision-making process by providing
a platform for data cleaning, data integration, and data
consolidation. A data warehouse contains subject-oriented,
integrated, time-variant, and non-volatile data. The Data
warehouse consolidates data from many sources while ensuring
data quality, consistency, and accuracy. Data
warehouse improves system performance by separating
analytics processing from transactional databases. Data flows
into a data warehouse from the various databases. A data
warehouse works by organizing data into a schema that
describes the layout and type of data. Query tools analyze the
data tables using schema.
Figure: Data Warehousing process
Advantages of Data Warehousing
• The data warehouse’s job is to make any form of corporate
data easier to understand. The majority of the user’s job
will consist of inputting raw data.
• The capacity to update continuously and frequently is the
key benefit of this technology. As a result, data warehouses
are perfect for organizations and entrepreneurs who want
to stay current with their target audience and customers.
• It makes data more accessible to businesses and
organizations.
• A data warehouse holds a large volume of historical data
that users can use to evaluate different periods and trends
in order to create predictions for the future.
Disadvantages of Data Warehousing
• There is a great risk of accumulating irrelevant and useless
data. Data loss and erasure are other potential issues.
• Data is gathered from various sources in a data warehouse.
Cleansing and transformation of the data are required. This
could be a difficult task.
What is Data Mining?
It is the process of finding patterns and correlations within large
data sets to identify relationships between data. Data mining
tools allow a business organization to predict customer
behavior. Data mining tools are used to build risk models and
detect fraud. Data mining is used in market analysis and
management, fraud detection, corporate analysis, and risk
management.

Figure: Data Mining process

Advantages of Data Mining
• Data mining aids in a variety of data analysis and sorting
procedures. The identification and detection of any
undesired fault in a system is one of the best
implementations here. This method permits any dangers
to be eliminated sooner.
 • In comparison to other statistical data applications, data
mining methods are both cost-effective and efficient.
• Companies can take advantage of this analytical tool by
providing appropriate and easily accessible knowledge-
based data.
• The detection and identification of undesirable faults that
occur in the system are one of the most astonishing data
mining techniques.
Disadvantages of Data Mining
• Data mining isn’t always 100 percent accurate, and if done
incorrectly, it can lead to data breaches.
• Organizations must devote a significant amount of
resources to training and implementation. Furthermore,
the algorithms used in the creation of data mining tools
cause them to work in different ways.
Difference Between Data Mining and Data Warehousing

Basis of
Comparison Data Warehousing Data Mining

A data warehouse
is a database Data mining is the
Definition system that is process of analyzing
designed for data patterns.
analytical analysis
Basis of
Comparison Data Warehousing Data Mining

instead of
transactional work.

Data is stored Data is analyzed

Process
periodically. regularly.

Data warehousing
is the process of
Data mining is the use of
extracting and
Purpose pattern recognition logic
storing data to
to identify patterns.
allow easier
reporting.

Data mining is carried

Data warehousing
Managing out by business users
is solely carried out
Authorities with the help of
by engineers.
engineers.

Data warehousing Data mining is

Data is the process of considered as a process
Handling pooling all relevant of extracting data from
data together. large data sets.
Basis of
Comparison Data Warehousing Data Mining

Subject-oriented, AI, statistics, databases,

integrated, time- and machine
Functionality varying and non- learning systems are all
volatile constitute used in data mining
data warehouses. technologies.

Data warehousing
is the process of
extracting and Pattern recognition logic
Task storing data in is used in data mining to
order to make find patterns.
reporting more
efficient.

It extracts data and This procedure employs

stores it in an pattern recognition tools
Uses orderly format, to aid in the
making reporting identification of access
easier and faster. patterns.

Examples When a data Data mining aids in the

warehouse is creation of suggestive
Basis of
Comparison Data Warehousing Data Mining

connected with patterns of key

operational parameters. Customer
business systems purchasing behavior,
like CRM items, and sales are
(Customer examples. As a result,
Relationship businesses will be able
Management) to make the required
systems, it adds adjustments to their
value. operations and
production.

KDD Process
KDD (Knowledge Discovery in Databases) is a process that
involves the extraction of useful, previously unknown, and
potentially valuable information from large datasets. The KDD
process is an iterative process and it requires multiple iterations
of the above steps to extract accurate knowledge from the
data.The following steps are included in KDD process:
Data Cleaning
Data cleaning is defined as removal of noisy and irrelevant data
from collection.
 1. Cleaning in case of Missing values.
2. Cleaning noisy data, where noise is a random or variance
error.
3. Cleaning with Data discrepancy detection and Data
transformation tools.
Data Integration
Data integration is defined as heterogeneous data from multiple
sources combined in a common source(DataWarehouse). Data
integration using Data Migration tools, Data Synchronization
tools and ETL(Extract-Load-Transformation) process.
Data Selection
Data selection is defined as the process where data relevant to
the analysis is decided and retrieved from the data
collection. For this we can use Neural network, Decision Trees,
Naive bayes, Clustering, and Regression methods.
Data Transformation
Data Transformation is defined as the process of transforming
data into appropriate form required by mining procedure. Data
Transformation is a two step process:
1. Data Mapping: Assigning elements from source base to
destination to capture transformations.
2. Code generation: Creation of the actual transformation
program.
Data Mining
Data mining is defined as techniques that are applied to extract
patterns potentially useful. It transforms task relevant data
into patterns, and decides purpose of model
using classification or characterization.
Pattern Evaluation
Pattern Evaluation is defined as identifying strictly increasing
patterns representing knowledge based on given measures. It
find interestingness score of each pattern, and
uses summarization and Visualization to make data
understandable by user.
Knowledge Representation
This involves presenting the results in a way that is meaningful
and can be used to make decisions.
Note: KDD is an iterative process where evaluation measures
can be enhanced, mining can be refined, new data can be
integrated and transformed in order to get different and more
appropriate results.Preprocessing of databases consists of Data
cleaning and Data Integration.
Advantages of KDD
1. Improves decision-making: KDD provides valuable insights
and knowledge that can help organizations make better
decisions.
2. Increased efficiency: KDD automates repetitive and time-
consuming tasks and makes the data ready for analysis,
which saves time and money.
3. Better customer service: KDD helps organizations gain a
better understanding of their customers’ needs and
preferences, which can help them provide better customer
service.
4. Fraud detection: KDD can be used to detect fraudulent
activities by identifying patterns and anomalies in the data
that may indicate fraud.
5. Predictive modeling: KDD can be used to build predictive
models that can forecast future trends and patterns.
Disadvantages of KDD
1. Privacy concerns: KDD can raise privacy concerns as it
involves collecting and analyzing large amounts of data,
which can include sensitive information about individuals.
2. Complexity: KDD can be a complex process that requires
specialized skills and knowledge to implement and
interpret the results.
 3. Unintended consequences: KDD can lead to unintended
consequences, such as bias or discrimination, if the data or
models are not properly understood or used.
4. Data Quality: KDD process heavily depends on the quality
of data, if data is not accurate or consistent, the results can
be misleading
5. High cost: KDD can be an expensive process, requiring
significant investments in hardware, software, and
personnel.
6. Overfitting: KDD process can lead to overfitting, which is a
common problem in machine learning where a model
learns the detail and noise in the training data to the
extent that it negatively impacts the performance of the
model on new unseen data.
Difference between KDD and Data Mining

Parameter KDD Data Mining

KDD refers to Data Mining refers to

a process of a process of
identifying valid, novel, extracting useful and
Definition
potentially useful, and valuable information
ultimately or patterns from large
understandable data sets.
Parameter KDD Data Mining

patterns and
relationships in data.

To extract useful
To find useful
Objective information from
knowledge from data.
data.

Data cleaning, data

integration, data Association rules,
selection, data classification,
transformation, data clustering, regression,
Techniques
mining, pattern decision trees, neural
Used
evaluation, and networks, and
knowledge dimensionality
representation and reduction.
visualization.

Structured information, Patterns, associations,

such as rules and or insights that can be
Output models, that can be used to improve
used to make decisions decision-making or
or predictions. understanding.
Parameter KDD Data Mining

Focus is on the
Data mining focus is
discovery of useful
on the discovery of
Focus knowledge, rather than
patterns or
simply finding patterns
relationships in data.
in data.

Domain expertise is
Domain expertise is
less critical in data
important in KDD, as it
mining, as the
Role of helps in defining the
algorithms are
domain goals of the process,
designed to identify
expertise choosing appropriate
patterns without
data, and interpreting
relying on prior
the results.
knowledge.
Data Mining Techniques

Data mining refers to extracting or mining knowledge from large

amounts of data. In other words, Data mining is the science, art,
and technology of discovering large and complex bodies of data
in order to discover useful patterns. Theoreticians and
practitioners are continually seeking improved techniques to
make the process more efficient, cost-effective, and accurate.
Many other terms carry a similar or slightly different meaning to
data mining such as knowledge mining from data, knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis data dredging.
Data mining treats as a synonym for another popularly used
term, Knowledge Discovery from Data, or KDD. In others view
data mining as simply an essential step in the process of
knowledge discovery, in which intelligent methods are applied
in order to extract data patterns.
Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro coined the term “Knowledge
Discovery in Databases” in 1989. However, the term ‘data
mining’ became more popular in the business and press
communities. Currently, Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery
are used interchangeably.
Nowadays, data mining is used in almost all places where a
large amount of data is stored and processed.
Knowledge Discovery From Data Consists of the Following
Steps:
Knowledge discovery from data (KDD) is a multi-step process
that involves extracting useful knowledge from data. The
following are the steps involved in the KDD process:
Data Selection: The first step in the KDD process is to select the
relevant data for analysis. This involves identifying the data
sources and selecting the data that is necessary for the analysis.
Data Preprocessing: The data obtained from different sources
may be in different formats and may have errors and
inconsistencies. The data preprocessing step involves cleaning
and transforming the data to make it suitable for analysis.
Data Transformation: Once the data has been cleaned, it may
need to be transformed to make it more meaningful for
analysis. This involves converting the data into a form that is
suitable for data mining algorithms.
Data Mining: The data mining step involves applying various
data mining techniques to identify patterns and relationships in
the data. This involves selecting the appropriate algorithms and
models that are suitable for the data and the problem being
addressed.
Pattern Evaluation: After the data mining step, the patterns and
relationships identified in the data need to be evaluated to
determine their usefulness. This involves examining the
patterns to determine whether they are meaningful and can be
used to make predictions or decisions.
Knowledge Representation: The patterns and relationships
identified in the data need to be represented in a form that is
understandable and useful to the end-user. This involves
presenting the results in a way that is meaningful and can be
used to make decisions.
Knowledge Refinement: The knowledge obtained from the data
mining process may need to be refined further to improve its
usefulness. This involves using feedback from the end-users to
improve the accuracy and usefulness of the results.
Knowledge Dissemination: The final step in the KDD process
involves disseminating the knowledge obtained from the
analysis to the end-users. This involves presenting the results in
a way that is easy to understand and can be used to make
decisions.
Now we discuss here different types of Data Mining Techniques
which are used to predict desire output.
Data Mining Techniques
1. Association
Association analysis is the finding of association rules showing
attribute-value conditions that occur frequently together in a
given set of data. Association analysis is widely used for a
market basket or transaction data analysis. Association rule
mining is a significant and exceptionally dynamic area of data
mining research. One method of association-based
classification, called associative classification, consists of two
steps. In the main step, association instructions are generated
using a modified version of the standard association rule mining
algorithm known as Apriori. The second step constructs a
classifier based on the association rules discovered.
2. Classification
Classification is the processing of finding a set of models (or
functions) that describe and distinguish data classes or
concepts, for the purpose of being able to use the model to
predict the class of objects whose class label is unknown. The
determined model depends on the investigation of a set of
training data information (i.e. data objects whose class label is
known). The derived model may be represented in various
forms, such as classification (if – then) rules, decision trees, and
neural networks. Data Mining has a different type of classifier:
• Decision Tree
• SVM(Support Vector Machine)
• Generalized Linear Models
• Bayesian classification:
 • Classification by Backpropagation
• K-NN Classifier
• Rule-Based Classification
• Frequent-Pattern Based Classification
• Rough set theory
• Fuzzy Logic
Decision Trees: A decision tree is a flow-chart-like tree
structure, where each node represents a test on an attribute
value, each branch denotes an outcome of a test, and tree
leaves represent classes or class distributions. Decision trees
can be easily transformed into classification rules. Decision tree
enlistment is a nonparametric methodology for building
classification models. In other words, it does not require any
prior assumptions regarding the type of probability distribution
satisfied by the class and other attributes. Decision trees,
especially smaller size trees, are relatively easy to interpret. The
accuracies of the trees are also comparable to two other
classification techniques for a much simple data set. These
provide an expressive representation for learning discrete-
valued functions. However, they do not simplify well to certain
types of Boolean problems.
This figure generated on the IRIS data set of the UCI machine
repository. Basically, three different class labels available in the
data set: Setosa, Versicolor, and Virginia.
Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classifier Method: Support
Vector Machines is a supervised learning strategy used for
classification and additionally used for regression. When the
output of the support vector machine is a continuous value, the
learning methodology is claimed to perform regression; and
once the learning methodology will predict a category label of
the input object, it’s known as classification. The independent
variables could or could not be quantitative. Kernel equations
are functions that transform linearly non-separable information
in one domain into another domain wherever the instances
become linearly divisible. Kernel equations are also linear,
quadratic, Gaussian, or anything that achieves this specific
purpose. A linear classification technique may be a classifier
that uses a linear function of its inputs to base its decision on.
Applying the kernel equations arranges the information
instances in such a way at intervals in the multi-dimensional
space, that there is a hyper-plane that separates knowledge
instances of one kind from those of another. The advantage of
Support Vector Machines is that they will make use of certain
kernels to transform the problem, such we are able to apply
linear classification techniques to nonlinear knowledge. Once
we manage to divide the information into two different classes
our aim is to include the most effective hyper-plane to separate
two kinds of instances.
Generalized Linear Models: Generalized Linear Models(GLM) is
a statistical technique, for linear modeling.GLM provides
extensive coefficient statistics and model statistics, as well as
row diagnostics. It also supports confidence bounds.
Bayesian Classification: Bayesian classifier is a statistical
classifier. They can predict class membership probabilities, for
instance, the probability that a given sample belongs to a
particular class. Bayesian classification is created on the Bayes
theorem. Studies comparing the classification algorithms have
found a simple Bayesian classifier known as the naive Bayesian
classifier to be comparable in performance with decision tree
and neural network classifiers. Bayesian classifiers have also
displayed high accuracy and speed when applied to large
databases. Naive Bayesian classifiers adopt that the exact
attribute value on a given class is independent of the values of
the other attributes. This assumption is termed class
conditional independence. It is made to simplify the
calculations involved, and is considered “naive”. Bayesian belief
networks are graphical replicas, which unlike naive Bayesian
classifiers allow the depiction of dependencies among subsets
of attributes. Bayesian belief can also be utilized for
classification.
Classification By Backpropagation: A Backpropagation learns by
iteratively processing a set of training samples, comparing the
network’s estimate for each sample with the actual known class
label. For each training sample, weights are modified to
minimize the mean squared error between the network’s
prediction and the actual class. These changes are made in the
“backward” direction, i.e., from the output layer, through each
concealed layer down to the first hidden layer (hence the name
backpropagation). Although it is not guaranteed, in general, the
weights will finally converge, and the knowledge process stops.
K-Nearest Neighbor (K-NN) Classifier Method: The k-nearest
neighbor (K-NN) classifier is taken into account as an example-
based classifier, which means that the training documents are
used for comparison instead of an exact class illustration, like
the class profiles utilized by other classifiers. As such, there’s no
real training section. once a new document has to be classified,
the k most similar documents (neighbors) are found and if a
large enough proportion of them are allotted to a precise class,
the new document is also appointed to the present class,
otherwise not. Additionally, finding the closest neighbors is
quickened using traditional classification strategies.
Rule-Based Classification: Rule-Based classification represent
the knowledge in the form of If-Then rules. An assessment of a
rule evaluated according to the accuracy and coverage of the
classifier. If more than one rule is triggered then we need to
conflict resolution in rule-based classification. Conflict
resolution can be performed on three different parameters: Size
ordering, Class-Based ordering, and rule-based ordering. There
are some advantages of Rule-based classifier like:
• Rules are easier to understand than a large tree.
• Rules are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
• Each attribute-value pair along a path forms conjunction:
each leaf holds the class prediction.
Frequent-Pattern Based Classification: Frequent pattern
discovery (or FP discovery, FP mining, or Frequent itemset
mining) is part of data mining. It describes the task of finding
the most frequent and relevant patterns in large datasets. The
idea was first presented for mining transaction databases.
Frequent patterns are defined as subsets (item sets,
subsequences, or substructures) that appear in a data set with a
frequency no less than a user-specified or auto-determined
threshold.
Rough Set Theory: Rough set theory can be used for
classification to discover structural relationships within
imprecise or noisy data. It applies to discrete-valued features.
Continuous-valued attributes must therefore be discrete prior
to their use. Rough set theory is based on the establishment of
equivalence classes within the given training data. All the data
samples forming a similarity class are indiscernible, that is, the
samples are equal with respect to the attributes describing the
data. Rough sets can also be used for feature reduction (where
attributes that do not contribute towards the classification of
the given training data can be identified and removed), and
relevance analysis (where the contribution or significance of
each attribute is assessed with respect to the classification
task). The problem of finding the minimal subsets (redacts) of
attributes that can describe all the concepts in the given data
set is NP-hard. However, algorithms to decrease the
computation intensity have been proposed. In one method, for
example, a discernibility matrix is used which stores the
differences between attribute values for each pair of data
samples. Rather than pointed on the entire training set, the
matrix is instead searched to detect redundant attributes.
Fuzzy-Logic: Rule-based systems for classification have the
disadvantage that they involve sharp cut-offs for continuous
attributes. Fuzzy Logic is valuable for data mining frameworks
performing grouping /classification. It provides the benefit of
working at a high level of abstraction. In general, the usage of
fuzzy logic in rule-based systems involves the following:
 • Attribute values are changed to fuzzy values.
• For a given new data set /example, more than one fuzzy
rule may apply. Every applicable rule contributes a vote for
membership in the categories. Typically, the truth values
for each projected category are summed.
3. Prediction
Data Prediction is a two-step process, similar to that of data
classification. Although, for prediction, we do not utilize the
phrasing of “Class label attribute” because the attribute for
which values are being predicted is consistently valued(ordered)
instead of categorical (discrete-esteemed and unordered). The
attribute can be referred to simply as the predicted attribute.
Prediction can be viewed as the construction and use of a
model to assess the class of an unlabeled object, or to assess
the value or value ranges of an attribute that a given object is
likely to have.
4. Clustering
Unlike classification and prediction, which analyze class-labeled
data objects or attributes, clustering analyzes data objects
without consulting an identified class label. In general, the class
labels do not exist in the training data simply because they are
not known to begin with. Clustering can be used to generate
these labels. The objects are clustered based on the principle of
maximizing the intra-class similarity and minimizing the
interclass similarity. That is, clusters of objects are created so
that objects inside a cluster have high similarity in contrast with
each other, but are different objects in other clusters. Each
Cluster that is generated can be seen as a class of objects, from
which rules can be inferred. Clustering can also facilitate
classification formation, that is, the organization of observations
into a hierarchy of classes that group similar events together.
5. Regression
Regression can be defined as a statistical modeling method in
which previously obtained data is used to predicting a
continuous quantity for new observations. This classifier is also
known as the Continuous Value Classifier. There are two types
of regression models: Linear regression and multiple linear
regression models.
6. Artificial Neural network (ANN) Classifier Method
An artificial neural network (ANN) also referred to as simply a
“Neural Network” (NN), could be a process model supported by
biological neural networks. It consists of an interconnected
collection of artificial neurons. A neural network is a set of
connected input/output units where each connection has a
weight associated with it. During the knowledge phase, the
network acquires by adjusting the weights to be able to predict
the correct class label of the input samples. Neural network
learning is also denoted as connectionist learning due to the
connections between units. Neural networks involve long
training times and are therefore more appropriate for
applications where this is feasible. They require a number of
parameters that are typically best determined empirically, such
as the network topology or “structure”. Neural networks have
been criticized for their poor interpretability since it is difficult
for humans to take the symbolic meaning behind the learned
weights. These features firstly made neural networks less
desirable for data mining.
The advantages of neural networks, however, contain their high
tolerance to noisy data as well as their ability to classify
patterns on which they have not been trained. In addition,
several algorithms have newly been developed for the
extraction of rules from trained neural networks. These issues
contribute to the usefulness of neural networks for
classification in data mining.
An artificial neural network is an adjective system that changes
its structure-supported information that flows through the
artificial network during a learning section. The ANN relies on
the principle of learning by example. There are two classical
types of neural networks, perceptron and also multilayer
perceptron.
7. Outlier Detection
A database may contain data objects that do not comply with
the general behavior or model of the data. These data objects
are Outliers. The investigation of OUTLIER data is known as
OUTLIER MINING. An outlier may be detected using statistical
tests which assume a distribution or probability model for the
data, or using distance measures where objects having a small
fraction of “close” neighbors in space are considered outliers.
Rather than utilizing factual or distance measures, deviation-
based techniques distinguish exceptions/outlier by inspecting
differences in the principle attributes of items in a group.
8. Genetic Algorithm
Genetic algorithms are adaptive heuristic search algorithms that
belong to the larger part of evolutionary algorithms. Genetic
algorithms are based on the ideas of natural selection and
genetics. These are intelligent exploitation of random search
provided with historical data to direct the search into the region
of better performance in solution space. They are commonly
used to generate high-quality solutions for optimization
problems and search problems. Genetic algorithms simulate the
process of natural selection which means those species who
can adapt to changes in their environment are able to survive
and reproduce and go to the next generation. In simple words,
they simulate “survival of the fittest” among individuals of
consecutive generations for solving a problem. Each generation
consist of a population of individuals and each individual
represents a point in search space and possible solution. Each
individual is represented as a string of
character/integer/float/bits. This string is analogous to the
Chromosome.
Advantages or Disadvantages:
Data mining is a powerful tool that offers many benefits across
a wide range of industries. The following are some of the
advantages of data mining:
Better Decision Making:
Data mining helps to extract useful information from large
datasets, which can be used to make informed and accurate
decisions. By analyzing patterns and relationships in the data,
businesses can identify trends and make predictions that help
them make better decisions.
Improved Marketing:
Data mining can help businesses identify their target market
and develop effective marketing strategies. By analyzing
customer data, businesses can identify customer preferences
and behavior, which can help them create targeted advertising
campaigns and offer personalized products and services.
Increased Efficiency:
Data mining can help businesses streamline their operations by
identifying inefficiencies and areas for improvement. By
analyzing data on production processes, supply chains, and
employee performance, businesses can identify bottlenecks and
implement solutions that improve efficiency and reduce costs.
Fraud Detection:
Data mining can be used to identify fraudulent activities in
financial transactions, insurance claims, and other areas. By
analyzing patterns and relationships in the data, businesses can
identify suspicious behavior and take steps to prevent fraud.
Customer Retention:
Data mining can help businesses identify customers who are at
risk of leaving and develop strategies to retain them. By
analyzing customer data, businesses can identify factors that
contribute to customer churn and take steps to address those
factors.
Competitive Advantage:
Data mining can help businesses gain a competitive advantage
by identifying new opportunities and emerging trends. By
analyzing data on customer behavior, market trends, and
competitor activity, businesses can identify opportunities to
innovate and differentiate themselves from their competitors.
Improved Healthcare:
Data mining can be used to improve healthcare outcomes by
analyzing patient data to identify patterns and relationships. By
analyzing medical records and other patient data, healthcare
providers can identify risk factors, diagnose diseases earlier, and
develop more effective treatment plans.
Disadvantages Of Data mining:
While data mining offers many benefits, there are also some
disadvantages and challenges associated with the process. The
following are some of the main disadvantages of data mining:
Data Quality:
Data mining relies heavily on the quality of the data used for
analysis. If the data is incomplete, inaccurate, or inconsistent,
the results of the analysis may be unreliable.
Data Privacy and Security:
Data mining involves analyzing large amounts of data, which
may include sensitive information about individuals or
organizations. If this data falls into the wrong hands, it could be
used for malicious purposes, such as identity theft or corporate
espionage.
Ethical Considerations:
Data mining raises ethical questions around privacy,
surveillance, and discrimination. For example, the use of data
mining to target specific groups of individuals for marketing or
political purposes could be seen as discriminatory or
manipulative.
Technical Complexity:
Data mining requires expertise in various fields, including
statistics, computer science, and domain knowledge. The
technical complexity of the process can be a barrier to entry for
some businesses and organizations.
Cost:
Data mining can be expensive, particularly if large datasets
need to be analyzed. This may be a barrier to entry for small
businesses and organizations.
Interpretation of Results:
Data mining algorithms generate large amounts of data, which
can be difficult to interpret. It may be challenging for businesses
and organizations to identify meaningful patterns and
relationships in the data.
Dependence on Technology:
Data mining relies heavily on technology, which can be a source
of risk. Technical failures, such as hardware or software crashes,
can lead to data loss or corruption.