UET

Since 2004

ĐẠI HỌC CÔNG NGHỆ, ĐHQGHN

VNU-University of Engineering and Technology

INT3405E - Machine Learning

Lecture 4: Classification (P1)

Hanoi, 09/2024
 Recap: Key Issues in Machine Learning
● What are good hypothesis spaces? We choose
○ Which spaces have been useful in practical applications and why? To
● What algorithms can work with these spaces? Optimize
○ Are there general design principles for machine learning algorithms?
● How can we find the best hypothesis in an efficient way?
○ How to find the optimal solution efficiently (“optimization” question)
● How can we optimize accuracy on future data?
○ Known as the “overfitting” problem (i.e., “generalization” theory)
● How can we have confidence in the results?
○ How much training data is required to find accurate hypothesis? (“statistical” question)
● Are some learning problems computationally intractable? (“computational” question)
● How can we formulate application problems as machine learning problems? (“engineering”
question)
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 Recap: Model Representation
Training Set How do we represent h ?

Learning Algorithm y

Size of h Estimated x
house price
x Hypothesis y
Linear regression with one variable.
“Univariate Linear Regression”

How to choose parameters ?

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 Recap: Gradient Descent for Optimization

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 Recap: Gradient Descent Example

(for fixed , this is a function of x) (function of the parameters )

How fast to converge to the Global Optimal?

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 Normal Equation (3)
●Matrix-vector formulation

●Analytical solution
Take O(mn2+n3)

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 Outline
● Bayesian Learning
○ Bayes Theorem
○ MAP learning vs. MLE learning
● Probabilistic Generative Models
○ Naïve Bayes Classifier
● Discriminative Models
○ Logistic Regression
○ Decision Tree
○ K-Nearest Neighbors
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 Bayes Theorem
● Bayes Theorem

Posterior Likelihood Prior

Thomas Bayes (1702–1761)

○ P(h) = prior probability of hypothesis h
○ P(D) = prior probability of training data D
○ P(h|D) = conditional probability of h given D (Posterior)
○ P(D|h) = conditional probability of D given h (Likelihood)

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 Maximum A Posterior Learning (MAP)
●Maximum a posterior learning (MAP)
○Find the most probable hypothesis given the training data by
maximizing the posterior prob.

Prior encodes the

knowledge/preference
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 MAP Learning
●For each hypothesis h in H, calculate the posterior prob.

●Output the hypothesis h with the highest posterior prob.

●Comments:
○ Computational intensive
○ Give a standard for judging the performance of learning algorithms
○ Choosing P(h) reflects our prior knowledge about the learning task

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 Maximum-Likelihood Estimation (MLE)

●Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) learning

○ Assume each hypothesis is equally probably a prior

○ Maximizing the likelihood of the training data

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 Relationship between MLE Learning
and Least-Squared Error Learning (1)
● Consider

● Assume

● We want learn for f(x)

● Linear Regression minimizes the objective (cost function) of the Mean
Squared Error

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 Relationship between MLE Learning
and Least-Squared Error Learning (2)

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 Probabilistic Generative Models (1)
• Classify instance x into one of K classes

Density function for class Ck Class prior

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 Probabilistic Generative Models (2)
• Classification decision

• The key is to decide the parameters

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 Probabilistic Generative Models (3)
● Given training data
● We have closed-form solutions:

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 Probabilistic Generative Models (4)

class-conditional posterior
densities probability

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 Curse of Dimensionality
●One challenge of learning with high-dimensional data is insufficient data
samples
●Suppose 5 samples/objects is considered enough in 1-D
– 1D : 5 points
– 2D : 25 points
– 3D : 125 points
– 10D : 9 765 625 points

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 Outline
● Bayesian Learning
○ Bayes Theorem
○ MAP learning vs. MLE learning
● Probabilistic Generative Models
○ Naïve Bayes Classifier
● Discriminative Models
○ Logistic Regression
○ Decision Tree
○ K-Nearest Neighbors
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 Naïve Bayes Classifier (1)
• Hard to estimate for high dimensional data x
•Conditional Independence assumption
• All attributes are conditionally independent
•Naïve Bayes approximation Distribution of 1 D

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 Naïve Bayes Classifier (2)
● Text categorization
: word histogram of a document
● Bag of words assumption:
○ Assume position doesn’t matter
● Conditional independence:

Occuring times
of word in
document x

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 Parameter Estimation
●Learning by Maximum Likelihood Estimates
○ Simply count the frequencies in the data

○ Create a mega-document for topic k by concatenating all the docs in this topic
○ Compute frequency of w in the mega-document

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 Problem with Maximum Likelihood
●What if there is a new word (e.g., any novel words created in internet) in a
test document which never appears in the training data

●Smoothing
○ Avoid zero prob.

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 Naïve Bayes Classifier (3)
• Bad approximation Text categorization for 20 Newsgroups
• Good classification accuracy

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 Naïve Bayes Classifier (4)

Naïve Bayes Classifier:

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 Example: “Play Tennis” (1)
● Based on the examples in the table, classify the following datum x:
x=(Outl=Sunny, Temp=Cool, Hum=High, Wind=strong)

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 The Independence Assumption
●Makes computation possible
●Yields optimal classifiers when satisfied
●Fairly good empirical results
●But is seldom satisfied in practice, as attributes (variables) are
often correlated
●Attempts to overcome this limitation:
○ Bayesian networks, that combine Bayesian reasoning with causal relationships
between attributes

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 Decision Boundary of Naïve Bayes (1)
● Consider text categorization of two classes
● The ratio determines the decision

Linear decision boundary

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 Decision Boundary of Naïve Bayes (2)
● Consider two class classification
● Gaussian density function
● Shared covariance matrix

Linear decision boundary

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 Decision Boundary
• Generative models essentially create linear decision boundaries
• Why not directly model the linear decision boundary

SML– Term 1 2020-2021

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30
 Outline
● Bayesian Learning
○ Bayes Theorem
○ MAP learning vs. MLE learning
● Probabilistic Generative Models
○ Naïve Bayes Classifier
● Discriminative Models
○ Logistic Regression
○ Decision Tree
○ K-Nearest Neighbors

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 Discriminative Models: Logistic Regression
• Generative models often lead to linear decision boundary
• Linear discriminatory model
• Directly model the linear decision boundary

• w is the parameter to be decided

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 Logistic Regression

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 Logistic Sigmoid Function
● The logistic / sigmoid function

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 Logistic Regression
• Given training data
• Likelihood function (or the Log-Likelihood)

• Learn parameter w by Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE)

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 Convex Objective Functions

If y = 1 Convex Loss Functions: If y = -1

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 Logistic Regression
• Convex objective function, global optimal

• No closed-form solution
• Gradient Descent

Classification error

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 Example: Heart Disease (1)
1: 25-29
2: 30-34
3: 35-39
4: 40-44
5: 45-49
6: 50-54
7: 55-59
• Input feature x: age group id 8: 60-64

• Output y: if having heart disease

• y=1: having heart disease
• y=-1: no heart disease

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 Example: Heart Disease (2)

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 Example: Text Categorization (1)
●Learn to classify text into two categories
●Input d:
• a document, represented by a word histogram
●Output
• y=±1:
+1 for political document
-1 for non-political document

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 Example: Text Categorization (2)
• Training data

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 Example: Text Categorization (3)

• Dataset: Reuter-21578
• Classification accuracy
• Naïve Bayes: 77%
• Logistic regression: 88%

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 Multi-class Logistic Regression
• How to extend logistic regression model to multi-class classification ?

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 Conditional Exponential Model (1)
• Consider K classes
• Define

• where Z is normalization factor:

Normalization factor
(partition function)

• Need to learn

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 Conditional Exponential Model (2)
• Learn weights w’s by maximum likelihood estimation

• Modified Conditional Exponential Model

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 Logistic Regression versus Naïve Bayes
•Both are linear decision boundaries
• Naïve Bayes:

• Logistic regression: learn weights by MLE

•Both can be viewed as modeling p(x|y)

• Naïve Bayes: independence assumption
• Logistic regression: assume an exponential family distribution for
p(x|y) (a broad assumption)

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 Discriminative versus Generative
Discriminative Models Generative Models

● Model P(y|x) directly • Model P(x|y) directly

Pros Pros
● Usually better performance
• Usually fast convergence
(with small training data)
● Robust to noise data • Cheap computation
Cons (easier to learn, e.g. NB)
● Slow convergence Cons
(e.g., LR by gradient descent)
• Sensitive to noise data
● Expensive computation
• Usually performs worse
(with small training data)
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 Summary
● Bayesian Learning
○ Bayes Theorem
○ MAP learning vs. MLE learning
● Probabilistic Generative Models
○ Naïve Bayes Classifier
● Discriminative Models
○ Logistic Regression
○ Decision Tree
○ K-Nearest Neighbors

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UET
Since 2004

ĐẠI HỌC CÔNG NGHỆ, ĐHQGHN

VNU-University of Engineering and Technology

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