UNIT r\ a SIA GROUP EQUALIZATION AND DIVERSITY PART-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1. Write the techniques required to improve received signal strength quality. Ans: The techniques required to improve received signal strength quality are, L.Equalization 2. Diversity 3. Channel codi Q2. Define equalization. Ans: (del Papers, a) Ap-8, (R13, 0) The process of eliminating the inter symbol interference and fading effects from the channel is known as equalization, Q3. Classify the types of equalizers. Model Papert, 1) The classification if equalizers i illustrated in igure. Equalizer Linear Non-linear _ ML symbol DFE Detector MLSE Fig 4, What are the types of non-linear equalizer? There are three types of non-linear equalizers namely, Decision feedback equlization (DFE) ‘Maximum likelihood symbol detection (MLSD) 3, Maximum likelihood sequenee estimator (MLSE) SPECTROM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS S14 GROUP {34.2 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] Q5. List out the different algorithms required in adaptive equalization. Ans: Mode! Paper, 1(n) ‘The different algorithms required in adaptive equalization are 1. Zero forcing algorithm, Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm, 3. Recursive Least Square (RLS) algorithm, Q6. Mention the factors that include in the performance of an algorithm. Ans: Model Papers, 219) ‘The factors that include in the performance of an algorithm are, 1. Rate of converge Misadjustment 3. Computational complexity 4, Numerical properties. Q7. What is threshold combining of receiver diversity? Ans: A. simplest technique of combining which avoids the requirement of dedicated receiver by seanning each brane ‘sequential order and producing the signal with SNR value which is greater than threshold "/7” is called threshold combi ing. Q8. Explain about frequency diversity. Ans (Model Papers, Qh) | May, (R43), 4) In frequency diversity, an information is transmitted on many carrier frequencies to avoid same fades, For an uncorrelated ‘channels, the probability of fading is the product of individual fading probabilities, Jn microwave line-of:sight links, channels are carried based on frequency division multiplex mode (FDM). Tropospheric propagation and reflection results in fading. 1 : N protection switching illustrates availability of one frequency on a stand-by basis, to provide frequency diversity switching for N other carriers, For a required diversity, traffic is switched tothe backup frequency. ‘The drawback of this method is that it requires spare bandwidth and many receivers as there are channels Q9. What is the need of RAKE receiver in receiver diversity? An: Mode! Papers, 21/9) ARAKE receiver fuclitates better estimation of transmitted signals. It properly aligns the replicas of transmitted signal in time, which earlier experienced a multipath delay during the transmission. It tries to collect the time shifted versions of original signals by providing an individual correlation receiver to each multipath signals. Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO Jf} on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 4.3 PART-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS 4.1 INTRODUCTION, FUNDAMENTALS OF EQUALIZATION, TRAINING A GENERIC ADAPTIVE EQUALIZER, EQUALIZERS IN A COMMUNICATION RECEIVER Q10. Explain about the various techniques to improve received signal quality. Ans: In mobile communication s stems, the Tink performance in mobile radio environments ean be improved by employing signal processing techniques, The techniques to improve received signal quality are, 1. Equalization {In multipath time dispersive channels, equalization is used to compensate average range of expected amplitude and delay characteristics. This in turn eliminates Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). Equalizers should be adoption as the channel is vine varying and unknown, Diversity This is @ technique used to compensate fiding channel impairments using receiving antennas, It reduces the depth and duration of fades in receiver. ‘Spatial diversity is a common diversity technique in which strategically placed multiple antennas are conneeted to a single receiving system, Ifone antenna experiences null signal and other with peak signal, the receiver seleets the best signal at any time. ‘Some of the techniques of diversity include, antenna polarization diversity, frequency diversity and time diversity Channel Coding {Ina mobile communication link, channel coding is used to improve the performance by adding redundant data bits in the transmitted message. This technique detects or correets the errors in a message bits and adds coding bits. This decreases the data transmission rate as the bandwidth increases. Block codes and convolutional codes are two types of channel codes. Though, these three techniques improve radio link performance in wireless communication systems, they are complex and cost effective Q11. Write a note on fundamentals of equalization. Ans: In mobile radio channels, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) affects high speed data transmissions and causes bit etrors at the receiver. Equalization isa signal proc sing teclunique which reduces this ISL A variety of adaptive equalizers are used in radio channels to cancel interference while providing diversity by tracking the time varying characteristics of mobile channel. The two major operating modes of an adaptive equalizer are taining and tracking. In this, a training sequence of pseudorandom binary signal or bit pattern is transmitted such that the receiver equalizer averages toa proper value. The transmitted user data atthe receiver is evaluated by adaptive equalizer to estimate filter coefficients using recursive algorithm, A petiodie retraining of equalizers provide effective ISI cancellation by using Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) wireless systems. The training sequence is sent atthe beginning of fixed-length time blocks, which are sent by TDMA systems. For every new data block, the equalizer gets retraining using same training sequence. ‘SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS ———— SIA GROUP >44 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] The block diagram of a communication system with adaptive equalizer in the receiver is shown in figure a = coming ipl repens pone | iipdh lo cane! aad reste EAE Original | Sean’ 4 a[ tater | —af Praremisor Pa qualizerPreietion Boe Figure If (0) is the origin HO x) @ H+) Where information signal then the signal received by the equalizer (»() is expressed as, {) ~ Impulse response of transmitter 1°) ~ Complex conjugate of fe) nb) ~ Input baseband noise 6 ~ Convolution operation ‘The output of the equalizer is obtained as, 0 OF) BA LD* (HO =x Oe) +n) BALD aw Where, 4. {0)~ lmplse response of equalizer (0 ~ Combined impulse response of the transmit. ‘The complex baseband impulse response of traversal iter equalizer is given by, Ago DEse- ay where, 7 c Let, m0) <0. then to Force J(9= xt), (must be, “WOH (= 8 LW) PS Complex filter coefficients 8 = oy Where, G() ~ Fourier transform of (9) HP) ~ Fourier transform of H,(0) FU) Fourier transform of (0) Fromabove equation, it can be noted that, an equalizer isan inverse filter ofthe channel, Fora frequency selective channel, equalizer allows small frequency components and attenuates the strong frequencies in the received frequency spectrum, Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO {Jf} on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 45 Q12, Write a short note on a generic adaptive equalizer and equalizers in a communication receiver. Ans: (Model Paper-I, 08. a = pay tt ABB aa odyoxtgat | Fy ele See — cost i (OOF ws sor epresnts akon property athe transite Sonal Figure From figure, the input y, isa random process that dependls on instantaneous state of radio channel and particular value of noise. The adaptive equaliber structure or transversal iter contains N delay elements, N+ taps and N~ | weights (tunable complex multipliers). ‘Weights are time varying and gots continuously updated either on sample basis or block bas ‘The adaptive algorithm uses error signal, “e,’ to reduce cost function and update equalizer weights. Based on classical equalization theory, cost function is the mean square error (MSE ie, £[e(K)e"(A))) between desired and output signal of the equalizer. The replica of transmitted signal can be obtained by periodically transmitting training sequence. By detecting the sequence, the receiver computes and minimizes the cost function. Jn recent inventions, blind algorithms are adopted which does require training sequences to exploit characteristics of the twansmitted signal. Constant Algorithm modulus (CMA) isa technique used to force the equalizer weights to maintain constant envelope modulation. Spectral coherence restoral algorithm (SCORE) is another technique which exploits spectral redundancy or eyelostationarty in the transmitted signal, ‘The representation of input signal as a vectors y, tothe equalizer is given by, ve ee Sed = () “Thea, the output of he adaptive equalize is given by, de Yow n 2 And wight Veto wi given by, wal! -@) = Twa uly, e ‘The error signal for @ known output is giver ee" ea by “6 Substituting equation (4) in equation (5), we get, eo IE WD ‘Then, the mean square error |e,* is obtained as, Ovi? = lefa adewlyyly-2avm, SPECTRUM @LLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS SIA GROUP {34.6 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] Expected value of [@' over kis computed as, lle = FLyP + wi EbuyTe2EbayE lm ‘The correlation of'x, and y, is given by, pod # [0 Wey ka os Ww And inpt corto teria mati in (81) (8 1) writen, sfysifeo|?e0" 788 Shas ee Monde Mens a “The mean square enor ofthe equalize is obtained as, Mean square ero, = [x3] +w" Rap" ul, are stat -y. MSE leads to optimal solutions for Equalizers in a Communication Receiver Ina wireless communication link, the performance of equalizer gets affected due to noise n,(2) induced by residual IS] and tracking error. ‘The output of the equalizer for a sequence n dom by, din) =xt0) © (0) + nn) @h, fn) “The prediction error of equalizer with irepular frequency response i given by, en) = a) dny= dn) ~[n(n) @ gn) + nf) hf) ‘The mean squared error Elen] determines the effectivity of equalizers. 4,2 LINEAR EQUALIZERS, NON-LINEAR EQUALIZATION - DECISION FEEDBACK EQUALIZATION (DFE), MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD SEQUENCE ESTIMATION (MLSE) EQUALIZER Q13. What are the different types of equalization techniques? Explain the classification of equalizers with the help of flow chart. Ans: Model Papers, 8 Equalization techniques are generally classi 1 Linear. 2. Nonlinear, ‘The linear technique is simple to implement and easy 10 understand whereas the implementation of non-inear technique is complex. Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE) is a non-linear technique which is widely used for simple implementation and good performance, In this technique, ifa channel has low SNR then error propagation is occurred in DFE (Decision Feedback Equalization) and this leads to poor performance, The optimal equalization technique is known as maximum likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE) and its performance is always considered as prior to other equalization techniques. Look for the SIA GROUP Loco gb on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 4.7 The flowchart representing different types of equalizers, their structures and algorithms are shown in figure Figure: Classification of Equalizers The equalizers can also be classified based on the symbol-by-symbol (SBS) or sequence estimators (SE's). The SBS equalizers are sed to remove the ISI from each symbol and then detects the symbol separately. All the linear equalizers including DFE comes under SBS equalizers. The sequence estimators are used to detect the sequence of symbols, so the effect of ISI comes under the category of estimation process. The implementation of linear and non-linear equalizers is usually done with the help of transversal or lattice structures, ‘The transversal structure isa filter with N-1 delay cons ive structure. But on comparing with traversal filters, lattice fil stability and flexibility in changing their length, ents and N taps that features on tunable complex weights, The lati is ofa more complex recut always have better numerical For the equalizers, algorithms are required to update the filter tap coefficients during the process of training and tracking. ‘These algorithms maintain balance between complexity, convergence rate and numerical stability Q14, Explain about linear transversal equalizer. Ans: ‘The implementation of linear equalizer can be done with the help of an FIR filter (Le, transversal filte). Hence itis ealled as linear transversal equalizer, Its the simplest and most common .qualizer structure, where the present and previous values of the received signal are linearly weighted with the help of filter coefficient and are added to obtain the output ‘The linear transversal equalizer is made up ef tapped delay lines using taps arranged ata period of “,’ apart ‘The basic structure of linear transversal equalizer is shown in figure (1) delay elements 0+ mf—§+| 1, T, lock QO ° ° ‘Taps re: Basi linear taneersl equal SPECTRUM A@LLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS SIA GROUP {348 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] ‘The structure of linear transversal equalizer is denoted with input and output signals and is shown in figure (2). opt Signals Jame vel oe : structure of Linear Transversal Equalizer ‘The output of a transversal filer before making a decision (i., threshold detection) is given as Where, C, ~ complex filter coef ts (or) Tap weights 4d, ~outputat time & put received signal at time f,+ 17 [iy ~ starting time of equalizer] N= number of taps ieWeN N+ 1 N, — Number of taps used in forward portion of equalizer N, — Number of tps used in reverse portion of equalizer ‘The minimum mean square error achieved by a lincur transversal equalizer is: Few, ri Heol Ie I TEE Where Flo") ~ Frequency response of channel 1N, Noise power spectral density The linear equalizer can also be implemented using lace filter. In attce filter the input signal yk is transformed into “N’ intermediate forward and backward error signals respectively. ‘The forward error signa is give 16) =) Dik 9 fA)+K, (sb, GeV) ‘The backward eror signal is given as, 6) = yk) = DA) nh D KW) 0) tion coefficient for (n — 1}th stage ‘The expression for output of equalizer is given as, =D eiw ‘The major disadvantages of latice equalizer are numerical stability and faster convergence, Look for the SMA GROUP Loco on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 49 Qi5. Explain in detail about decision feedback equalization. Ans: May-7 (R19, 8 ‘The basic structure of decision feedback equalizer is as shown in figure ep Sigmte a Pepe ‘The decision feedback equalizer consists of a Feed Forward Filter (FFF) to which a received sequence yn] is given as input. Itis connected toa feedback filter to which previously detected sequence is give as input. ‘The function of DFE is to determine the ISI contribution from the detected signals which are then passed through a {gedback filter and then convolved withthe feed forward filter. ‘The feedback filter should always behave as a causal system, otherwise the system becomes unstable The decision feedback equalizer examines only on the frequency response of the chat So, DFE is five from noise enhancement, , but not to find its inverse From the figure, it is observed that the equalizer has Nj!Nj¢L taps in the feed forward filter and N, taps in the feedback filter. Thus, the expression for output is given as, Where, CF Tap gain for forward filter >, ~Input for forward filter F# — Tap gain for feedback filter «i{ik) ~ Previous decision made on the detected signal Afier getting the value of d, from equation(1), d, value is decided. Then all the values dd, ,d,,....-are feedback to the equalizer, then dj, is obtained. "The minimum mean square error expected to occur in DFEis given as, ef e)|" Until the value of |F(e") remains constant, then the ‘mean square of decision feedback equalizer (DFE) will be smaller than Tinear transversal equalizer (LTE) ‘As DFE can be implemented in divect transversal form, for as.a lattice filter, then the lattice implementation of DFE is equal to a transversal DFE with feed forward length N, and feed filter length N, for N,> N, Q16. Explain about maximum likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE) equalizer. Ani MLSE receiver is optimal that it minimizes the probability of a sequence error, In mobile communi link, the mean square error (MSE) based linear equalizers are ‘optimum with minimum probability of symbol error with out any amplitude distortion, Hence, MSE based equalizers of ‘optimum or nearly optimum non-linear structures which the forms of classical maximum likelihood receiver structure tions An algorithin with channel impulse response simulator enables MLSE to test and choose the output of maximum probability from the data sequences. In mobile radio channels, viterb algorithms implements MLSE estimator structure of state sequences of a finite state. Hence, MLSE can be considered as estimator of state of a diserete time finite state machine, ‘The viterbi algorithm tracks MM states (M= size of the symbol) ofthe channel through trellis. A rank is ordered for MM sequences terminating in recent Z. symbols at stage K. The structure of MLSE receiver is shown in figure. Toma fo LE Te Figure MLSE requires channel characteristics to compute the ‘metrics and statistical distribution of noise corrupting the signal ‘MLSE and channel estimator depends on diserete samples while ‘matcher filter depends on the continuous time signa ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS, ‘SIA GROUP 224.10 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] Q17._ Distinguish linear and non-linear equalizers. Ans: The differences between linear and non-linear equalizers are mentioned below: jear Equalizers Now. inear Equalizers 1. | Linear equalizers are simple to implement but suffers from more noise amplification, 2. | These are not used in wirele applications 3, | The performance of linear equalizers is bad for the ‘channels which has deep spectral nulls in pass band. 4, | They are implemented with the help of transversal or lattice structure. 5, | The linear equalizers are classified as: (i) Zero forcing equalizers i) Minimum mean square eror(MMSE) equalizers 6, | The advantages of linear equalizer include numerical stability, faster convergence, unique structure that allows the dynamic assignment of the most effective Tength, 7. | The only disadvantage is that, the structure of linear ‘equalizer is more complicated (Non-linear equalizers are complex to implement but they have less noise amplification These are mostly used in wireless applications The performance of non-linear equalizers is good for the channels having deep spectral nulls in the pass band, ‘These are implemented with the help of transversal (or) lattice structure and transversal channel estimator. The non-linear equslizers are classified as () Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE) (ii) Maximum Liketthood Symbol Detection (MLSD) (ii) Maxinnum Likelihood Sequence Estimator(MLSE) The advantages of non-linear equalizers inelude better system performance, high adaptability nature, lowest frame ertor rate, optimal The disadvantages of non-linear equalizers include difficulty in circuit implementation and whenever the memory grows, hen the system becomes unresponsive. 4.3 ALGORITHMS FOR ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION - ZERO FORCING ALGORITHM, LEAST MEAN SQUARE ALGORITHM, RECURSIVE LEAST SQUARES ALGORITHM 18. What are the different algorithms required in adaptive equalization. What are its factors? Ans: Modo! Paper, 08 Analgorithm is designed for the adaptive equalizer to update the equalizer coeflicients and o track the channel variations. Among the wide range of algorithms available, three basie algorithms are required for the modification of equalizer coefficients, They are, 1. Zero forcing algorithm 2. Least mean square (LMS) algorithm 3, Recursive least square (RLS) algorithm The factors that include in the performance of an algorithm are: 1. Rate of Convergence is defined as the number of iterations required for an algorithm in response to the stationary inputs to combine strongly \with the optimum solution A faster rate of convergence enables the algorithm to modify quickly into a stationary environment of unknown statisties, in 2 Mi adjustment 0 allows the algorithm to track the statistical variations, when they are operating in 4 non-stationary environment. This provides measure of amount by which final value of mean square error is averaged over a group of adaptive filters, ‘which differs from the optimal minimum mean square error 3. Computational Complexity ‘This is the number of operations required to finish one complete iteration of the algorithm, 4. Numerical Properties When an algorithm is exeeuted numerically, then errors are developed due to the round off noise and representation mistakes, These kind of errors effeets the stability of the algorithm, Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO {J on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 4.11 Q19. Discuss about zero forcing algorithm. (Model Papers, aay, 13), G1) (or) Explain about zero forcing algorithm in adaptive equalization, Ans: In z2t0 forcing equalizer, the equalizer coefficients ate selected to make the combined channel samples and impulse response of equalizer to zero. If the increase in number of coeificients without skipping any value is allowed, then an infinite length equalizer with zero ISI at the output ean be ‘obtained. Ifthe time delay provided by the delay elements is, T (symbol duration) and if the frequency response H_(/) is periodic with a period of 1/T (symbol rate), then the combined response of equalizer channel should satisfy nyquist’s first criterion, ie HANH Ppa, [fis War Where, HJ) ~ folded frequency response of channel. As infinite length equalizer with zero ISI acts as an inverse filter which inverts the folded frequency response of the channel. The major disadvantage of zero forcing algorithm, is that, when there is high attenuation for folded frequency spectrum, then the inverse flteramplifies the noise frequencies. Hence the zero forcing equalizer is not frequently used for wireless links but it performs well for wired telephone links. Q20. Explain Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm in adaptive equalization. Ans: The LMS equalizers uscd for the minimization of mean square error value between the outputs of desired equalizer and ‘equalizer. The prodie ended tion error is given as, This can be rewritten as, w 3, dmyion wy) The mean square error |e,|? at time instant *k’ is given as, Je? = x +W "9 4m, 28, The expected value of |g’ given as, Fle" eg] + Tr, = ZBL ¥ 1%, The representation for mean square error is given as, = Elece) ‘The prediction entre, is dependent on tp gain vector 1 so the mean square error isa function of w, The mean squate ertor as a function of tap gain vector ‘1,’ is tepresented 28, ov, [ie cost function) So, the mean square error value to be minimum, the derivation of cost function should be equal to zero. a ie. go so) = 27,428, H,-0 = W,- 20, Py Rua ‘The minimum mean squate error (MMSE) of equalizer is given as, T> HO,)= Else] PLO, From equation (1), Ro, ‘The minimization of MSE carried out with the help of stochastic gradient algorithm is called Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm. The sequence of steps required in the calculation of LMS are, dny= 01) y.Ar) ea) (a) da) O41 1)= 0,0) = ae(n) yn) Where, IN Number of delay stages in equalizer Step size. The step size manages the rate of convergence and stability ofthe algorithm, The rate of convergence is very slow, because it is managed by only one parameter ‘a’. So for the ‘ansformation to be stable, a” is selected from the range given below. i.e. to avoid instability, a is controlled by total input power. SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS. SIA GROUP 34.12 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] Q21. Explain Recursive Least Square (RLS) algorithm. Mention the steps involved in calculating RLS algorithm in adaptive equalization. Ans: Yaw LMS algorithm becomes slow. To improve the convergence rate, various powerful, comples When the Eigen values of input covariance matrix R,,, are over wide range, ie., 3 => 1, then the convergence rate of daptive signal processing techniques known as recursive least squares (RLS) are used. Depending on time average, the last square eros given as, Ha) = Dae meta) Where 2. Weighting fctor( 1 but always <1) (in) ~ Complex conjugate of. tin) ~ Ero “The expression for errors given as, atin) = 9M WA) for 051m wher, HO DOMED, oon MENDY Here, Y,( is the data input vector at time ‘ and wy/n) is the new tap gain vector at tim To get the value of minimum least square ertor, the gradient of J(n) is equated to ze. 2 yy) =0 Wher, J¢N) — cumulative squared error of new tap gains. BAF AR (MH (a) =O = 2PM) =2R(a) O(n) = ER WS W=FO] Where, 4, — Optimal tap gain vector of RLS equalizer. ‘The expressions for R,,/n) and P.(n) is given as, Ryo) = SOMO Pah= DK ‘The recursive equation for Rn) interms of Rft1) i Resin) = A Rygln-1) + ysCm) 90. Look for the SIA GROUP LoGo {J on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 4.13 The miattix inverse for the above equation is given as, B= 1) ye) vb) Rein 1) an) ayn=L|agar—9- Where Ho) — fn) Ry nD 94). ‘The weight update equations in RLS minimization are given as, Wand Wort) + yf) nel) Where kjoy= SGD “Theses ncolved in celting te RLS loiter gee belo @ Initialize 0(0) ~ A(0)~ x(0) = 0 and R40) ~ Bly, ny i) vauning in floing expen, [a) din) =a Da) 0 inymstey= R=) y@) RAY @ RD y@) fe) = @ Re Le@=)= Koy RD] (©) on) = ofr 1) + k(n) e*@), Where 1 Weeingcoefteom IF the chanel is ime invariant then inthe ange oF 08 <2-<1 is considered 4.4 DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES - DERIVATION OF SELECTION DIVERSITY IMPROVEMENT, DERIVATION OF MAXIMAL RATIO COMBINING IMPROVEMENT, PRACTICAL SPACE DIVERSITY CONSIDERATION - SELECTION DIVERSITY, FEEDBACK OR SCANNING DIVERSITY, MAXIMAL RATIO COMBINING, EQUAL GAIN COMBINING, POLARIZATION DIVERSITY, FREQUENCY DIVERSITY, TIME DIVERSITY 222. Explain the selection combining of receiver diversity ‘Ans: In selection combining, the combiner produces the signals with high SNR (r:/%) values, This means if'a noise power (N= Njis same for all the branches, then a branch with h ‘an instant, hest SNR is chosen, This is because only one branch is required at With the help of selection combiner, the SNR value of the outputs produced by the combiner is equal to the maximum SNR of all the branches SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS SIA GROUP Zi4.14 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD) For an M-branch diversity, the cumulative distribution function of Eis given as, Ps) = PORES) P (mash -[Pacv ‘The distribution of ean be obtained by differentiating P.,(/) with respect to “y* and the outage probabi obtained by evaluating P..(y) at ns =) can be Ie there are “M" branches with uncorelated Rayleigh fading amplitudes r, then the instantaneous SNR on é* branch, is given as N ‘The average SNR on ## branch is given as, yr) ‘Therefore the exponential SNR distribution is given as, Pam Lew e In Rayleigh fading, the outage probability forthe target ‘yon the i branch is Pa) ‘The outage probability ofthe selection combiner for the target 7, is given a, Pd = [LP - fe oly « Iv the average SNR forall the branches is same, then the above expression can be written as shown below. e) Pag (id= POE S49) = [hel] 3) (On differentiating equation (2) with respeet to y,, then the distribution for y, is given as, Meth tteetih Mie] 6 ‘The average SNR for the combiner output which is independent and identically distributed rayleigh fading is, Periay Bf esa f Wve Hence the average SNR gain and corresponding array. increases with M. The biggest grin is obtained when the signals are going from no diversity 10 1wWo-branch diversity But ithe signals are going from two to thre then the nin obtained is ess compared tothe gain ofsignals going from one to wo. The plot ofP, versus (7/4) for ilferent values of Mf in Ray 2h fading is shown in figure (1). Figure (1): Outage Probability of Selection Combining in Rayleigh Fading When signals are going from M= 1 to4=2, then 1% of ‘outage probability produces 12 dB reduction in SNR and 0.01% ‘of outage probability produces 20 dB reduetion in SNR. When signals are going from M-= 2 to M= 3, then 0.01% of outage probability produces further reduction of 7 dB. ‘When signals are going ftom M=3 10 probability produces further reduction of 4 dB, So, when the number of branches increases the results will get reduced and also for the Rayleigh fading the distribution of combiner output SNR isnot exponential The average plot of , versus 7, (copy content‘ fiom the script) in Rayleigh fading which i obtained by the numerical evaluation of J O( V2; )PE dy wart Polis given in figure 2), . =4, then outage | \ VE Figure (2k: Average P, of BPSK Under Selection Combining with Rayleigh Adding Look for the SIA GROUP Loco gh on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 415 “The average probability of symbol ervor is given as, - fhe Pedy 0 M- | CO" ppm ay tmy [Assuming that there is no correlation between the branch amplitudes, Q23. Explain the threshold combining of receiver diversity. Ans: A simplest technique of combining which avoids the requirement of dedicated receiver by scanning each branch in a sequential order and producing the signal with SNR value which is greater than threshold ‘/T* is called threshold combining. In this technique, coherent or differential modulation is used. If particular branch is seleeted, the combiner produces the signal ofthat branch as long as the SNR of selected branch is above the threshold level. Ifthe SNR of that branch falls below the threshold, then the combiner shifts to another branch without any shifting order. For two-branch diversity, ifthe SNR of one branch becomes below the threshold, then the combiner shifts to another branch, This process is called switeh-and-stay combining (SSC), ‘The switching process and association of SNR with SSC is sho figure —— syrorsse SNR of Branch 1 ‘SNR of Branch 2 y Figure: SNR of SSC Technique Asthe SSC does not select a branch with high SNR, its performance always lies between no diversity and ideal SC (Selection Combining). Let, SNR of branch be 9, SNR of combiner output be y= cdf of combiner output = P (7) = POL opal a} ome A Pa _ Antenna Ge rare Figure (1: Maximal Ratio Combiner Look for the SUA GROUP LOGO {J on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) 417 ‘When the signals are co-phased, then Where, 6, ~ Phase of incoming signal on * branch, Hence the envelope of a combiner output is given as, ‘The branches with high SNR are considered first than the branches with low SNR value, ea? = a}|.N, then the SNR of the combiner becomes, i.e. the SNR ofthe combiner output is the sum of SNRs of individual branch, ‘The distibution of 72 is given as, per XO)? The outage probability for a given threshold y, is givens, PY() y20 Pez, for Maximal Ratio Cor ‘to Rayleigh Fading ing With Respect For BPSK modulation, the average P, is give P, I Ol v27)Ps(ndy (se) Eeeyyey ‘The chemnoff bound applied to the upper bound on average probability of error is given as, Qwse ‘The approximation of probability of error is given as, = Oy, O( VB) = Oy ’, a1 Puyo 2 Integrating with respect to 2°, the above expression becomes, Ls Bn? (On approximation, (®% t a3 ‘Therefore, at high SNR, the diversity order of MRC is equal to M (ie, number of antennas), so MRC attains full diversity order. ‘SPECTRUM @LLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS SIA GROUP Yb4.18 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] Q25. Explain about practical space diversity consideration. Ans: Practical Space Diversity Considerations Space diversity or antenna diversity is used in wireless systems to design base station. In each cell site, multiple receiving antennas at base station must be spaced considerably several tens of wavelength) in the vicinity of the mobile to achieve decorrelation, Therefore, space diversity can be used ‘The block diagram of a space diversity scheme is as shown in figure (1). Output ‘Variable Gain! Figure (1) ‘There are four methods of space diversity reception. They are, 1. Selection Divers v Selection diversity is « simple technique whieh is analyzed as shown in figure (1), ‘m’ demodulators provide ‘m” diversity branches with same average SNR. by adjusting their gains. The branch with largest (S*NY/N is sent to the ‘demodulator, as itis difficult to measure instantaneous SNR. values, Hence, its circuitry must be designed such that the internal time constants are shorter than the reciprocal of the signal fading rte 2. Feedback o Scanning Diversity In scanning diversity, all M signals are scanned ina fixed sequence such that a signal shove a predetermined threshold is found. When this signal falls below threshold, scanning is again initiated, The implementation ofthis process simple as it requires only one receiver as shown in figure (1), = outed. Comparator Prone Threshold ‘Shor Tem ‘average Reever Figure (2) 3. Maximal Ratio Combining In this method, the signal voltage to noise power ratios ‘ofthe signals from all the M branches are summed. Tae block diagram of maximal ratio combining is shown, in figure (2). pt cose DA mr Ls Pa] ve ent mf ai Sa -| - “Adaptive control Fue In this, each signal of antenna element contains individual receiver and phase cixcuit, Maximal ratio combining produces aan output SNR which isthe sum of individual SNRs. Hence, an acceptable output SNR is produced to reduce fading of known linear diversity combiner statistically, 4. Equal Gain Combining The maximal ratio combining sometimes does not account for the variable weighting capability, Equal gain combining overcomes this situation by seting all branch weights tounity but with signals from each branch are co-phased. Hence, aan acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable inputs simultaneously received on each branch, The performance of ‘equal gain combining is beter than maximal ratio combining, ‘but less than selection divers Polarization Diversity At the base station, space diversity is less practical as a large number of antenna spacings are required due to nartow angle of incidence. Polarization diversity uses orthogonal polarization at the base station in which only two diversity branches are used to co-locate antenna elements Earlier, in cellular radio, vertical polarization (vertical ‘whip antennas) are used by subseriber antennas on vehicles Later, these are reduced due to handing and replaced by portable cellular phone. ‘Maltile reflections in the channel result in de-cortelation caused by the horizontal and vertical polarization paths. ‘Therefore, different reflection coefficients exists with different amplitude and phases foreach polarization, After certain random, reflections, the received polarization becomes independent of the transmitted polarization “Mulhipath inside buildings are characterized by circular ‘and linear polarized antennas. An obstruction in the path result jn decreased multipath delay spread by polarization diversity Polarization diversity is important in improving link margin and capacity ‘Theoretical Model for Polarization Diversity ‘When a signal is transmitted from a mobile with vertical ‘horizontal polarization, itis received atthe base station by a polarization diversity antenna with two branches. Look for the SUA GROUP LOGO {J on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-4 (Equalization and Diversity) “The theoretical model for polarization diversity is shown in figure 3). Consider the elements F, and ¥, making angle + ce with the y-axis of two antennas. At the direction of angle, a mobile station exists from the main beam direction, ‘The signal arrival atthe base station is expressed as, x=reostot+$,) x= reostor* 4) Where, cand y~—Signal levels when p= 0 1 and r, ~ Independent Rayleigh distributions 6, and 6, ~ Independent uniform distributions ‘Then, the received signal values at elements Vand F, ate given by, ¥, = (ar, c08 4, +r, 6 608 6) 608 ot (ar, sin +r, b sia V, =Car, e086, +r, b 608 6,) 608 at Car, sin 6, +7, bin.) sin or Where ~sin cos B bcos The correlation coefticient ‘p"is given by, ( *(a)eos?(B)T tan" (a) eos" (5) +P Where, (RE) _ nga? +130" 2 pabeos(o, +45) Cross polarization, T= (pat "7, 2a r36*25 nabcos(, +63) Polarization angle B- Offset angle ‘SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS SIA GROUP 3.4.20 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] Correlation coefficient depends on polarization angle, ‘offset angle andl eros polarization discrimination, 11 inereases wilh B. p decreases with increased a. The average value of signal loss *L’ using vertical polarization is given by, Laaitee Frequency Diversity For answer tefer UnitAV, OS, ‘Time Diversity Time diversity involves transmission of information at time spacings (greaterthan channel coherence time) to provide independent fading conditions for multiple repetitions of the signal. RAKE receiver for spread spectrum CDMA implements time diversity where the multi-path channel provides redundancy in the transmitted message, 4.5 RAKE RECEIVER Q26. Explain the selection combining of receiver diversity. Ans: Model Papers, 8 A RAKE receiver facilitates better estimation of ‘transmitted signals. t properly aligns the veplicas of transmitted signal in time, which earlier experienced a multipath delay during the transmission. It ries to collect the time shifted versions of | original signals by providing an individual correlation receiver tocach multipath signals. The range of time delay that a specific correlator can search i ealled search window A rake receiver which is specially designed for CDMA is showa in figure, sna Figure: M-Branch RAKE Receiver For spread spectrum CDMA, time diversity is most ‘commonly used along with RAKE receiver, wherein multipath ‘components consisting of useful information offers redundaney in transmitted message of CDMA signal. ‘A RAKE receiver employs multiple correlators to tect“ multipath components. The output ofeach multipath comelator is weighted for the better assessment of transmitted signal, Depending on the weighted outputs of M-correlators, demodulation and bit decisions can be decided. In aatural environments, the delay between the multipath components is large. If proper chip rate is selected, then the low auto corelation properties of CDMA spreading sequence assures that multipath ‘components appear uncorrelated to each other. To find out the performance of RAKE receiver, “M" correlators are assumed at CDMA receiver 10 capture “M™ strongest multipath components. A weighting network is used to provide a linear combination of correlator output for a bit detection. ‘Thecorrelater-1 shown in the above figureis synchronized ‘with multipath ml. The multipath m, isin delay oft, after the arrival of m,. The delay (zt) is always assumed to be greater than chip duration. The comtelator-2 shown in the above figure is synchronized with multipath m,. 11 has less correlation with -m, compared 10 ,. ‘The advantages of having multiple correlators are men- tioned below. 1. _Ifthe output ofa single correlator is corrupted by fading, then the value of receiver cannot be corrected 2. Bit decisions depending on single correlator provides large bit error rate, ‘These problems can be reduced by means of multiple correlators, From the figure, “AP decision statistics are weighted to find the overall statisties. ‘The ouputs of “AF conelatrs ae given a ZZ. Meconelators are weighted a 6,05, ty Jn case of maximal ratio combining diversity scheme, the overall signal °Z is given as, = a, zm a) ‘The weighting coefficients are normalized and the equivalent «, ven a «, - 2 mi Solction of weighting oveficints depending om acta ctputs ofthe corelators provides beter RAKE performance Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO {Jf} on the TITLE COVER before you buy