ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY 1
AIM
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V ), battery, one way key,
rheostat, sand paper, connecting wires.

P ROCEDURE
1. Connect the components
as shown in Fig. A 1.1.
2. After closing the key K,
check that the voltmeter
and ammeter show
deflections on the right
hand side.
3. Check the continuity of the
assembled circuit using a
multimeter (see Activity 4).
Fig. A 1.1 Assembling of given components

R ESULT
The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

P RECAUTIONS
1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of ammeter and positive terminal of the voltmeter.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the resistor.
3. Sand paper should be used to clean the ends of connecting wires
and leads of the component terminals. Grease/oil or oxide layer

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on their surfaces is insulating in nature and needs to be removed.

However, do not clean the plugs and keys with sand paper.
Excessive use of sand paper in such a case will make the plug
unfit to be used with the key.

D ISCUSSION
1. Draw the circuit diagram of the experiment before you start
connecting apparatus and keep infront of you.
2. The values of the resistances and the current carraying capacity
of the rheostat are given on a plate fixed on the body of rheostat.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. What do you mean by emf of a cell?
2. Does the current drawn from the cell remain constant? If
not, why?
3. Why is an ammeter always connected in series with the circuit?
4. Why is a voltmeter always connected in parallel to the component
across which voltage is to be measured?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Design different kinds of circuits that you will study in your class and
assemble them using the relevant components, for example (i) circuit to
measure the value of an unknown resistance using a meter bridge (ii) circuit
to compare e.m.f. of two cells using a potentiometer, etc.
2. Measure the voltmeter and ammeter readings for different rheostat settings
and verify if the ratio of potential difference across the resistor to the current
through it is constant.
3. Modify the circuit using two resistors which may either be connected in
series or in parallel.

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ACTIVITY 2
AIM
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components
that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and
also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery, plug
key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and
sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the
circuit are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit
components/devices are in working condition and key is closed.
An open circuit means a break in some part of a circuit which could
be deliberate such as a key in open position or a fault such as broken
wire or burnt out component(s) or loose connection. Some of such
circuits are given in Figs. A 2.1 (a), (b), (c) and (d).

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Fig. A 2.1 (a),(b),(c),(d) Open circuits

Note to teachers: In this activity, students are expected to draw

the diagram of a given open circuit comprising a few circuit
components e.g. a key, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, rheostat etc.
After drawing the given circuit, students would be marking the
components which are not connected in proper order. Then a
correct circuit diagram is to be drawn and accordingly the circuit
components are to be connected in proper order.
Teachers are therefore advised to set up a few open circuits in
which some of the components are not arranged in proper order.

P ROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit diagrams in your notebook as given by your
teacher [Fig. A 2.1(a), (b), (c) and (d)].
2. Consider one circuit and mark in Table A 2.1, the various
components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
4. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit
diagram.
5. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is
functional.

Note: Rheostat can be used both as a variable resistance and potential

divider.
Rheostat as a variable resistance
1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (a) showing use of a rheostat
as a variable resistor.
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2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn below using one end

terminal and the other variable terminal.

Variable resistance

Rh

End terminal End terminal

(1) (2)

(a)

Fig. A 2.2 (a) Rheostat as a variable resistor

(b) Rheostat as a potential divider giving variable voltage

Rheostat as a potential divider

1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (b) showing use of a rheostat
as a potential divider.
2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn above using (i) the
end terminals (1) and (2) connected to input potential (battery)
and (ii) one end terminal and the other variable terminal for
variable voltage.

O
BSERVATIONS

Table A 2.1: Mark a (P ) in appropriate column

Sl. No. Circuit Correct Incorrect

Component Connection Connection
1 Battery/cell
2 Resistor
3 Rheostat
4 Key
5 Ammeter
6 Voltmeter

R
ESULT
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram
is functional.

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P RECAUTIONS
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper
before making connections.
2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the
ammeter.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with it.

D ISCUSSION
1. (a) Rheostat can be used in series as a variable resistance. In
this case, the end terminal (1) and the other variable terminal
is to be used [Fig. A 2.2(a)].
(b) When rheostat has to be used as a potential divider across
the cell, the variable voltage is derived using any one end-
terminal and the variable terminal of the rheostat [Fig. A
2.2(b)].
Justify how the discussion points 1(a) and 1(b) are possible?
2. Key is to be kept “OPEN” so that no damage to the components
occur.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Interpret the function of each component in the circuit.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of a rheostat as a variable resistance
showing the position of sliding contact for (i) maximum resistance
(ii) minimum resistance.
3. What is the function of sand paper in setting up the electric circuit?
4. A rheostat and a resistance box can change the resistance in a
circuit, yet their functions are different. Discuss it.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Draw a circuit diagram using rheostat as a potential divider. Make actual

connection and determine the voltage range it provides.
2. Study the different kinds of keys available in the laboratory and identify
their functions in the electric circuit.
3. Make a detailed study of different types of resistances available in the
laboratory (carbon resistor, wire wound resistance box).
4. Compare the connecting wires used in household circuits and those used in
the laboratory.
5. Make a study of different battery eliminators, dc sources (cells, batteries) in
the laboratories. How are they different as compared to car batteries?
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ACTIVITY 3
AIM
To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or
without iron core.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Inductor coil (diameter about 2 cm and 2000 turns), soft iron core
(cylindrical rod of diameter about1.75 cm and length equal to that of
inductor), resistance box (0 to 10,000 ohm), battery eliminator
(0-2-4-6 volt), a step down transformer with tappings (0-2-4-6 volt,
50 Hz), dc milliammeter (range 0 - 500 mA), ac milliammeter (range
0 - 500 mA), dc voltmeter (range 0 - 5 V), ac voltmeter (range 0 - 5 V),
one way key, connecting wires.

P RINCIPLE
An inductor is a cylindrical coil of very large number of turns of copper
wire usually wound on a hollow cylinder. The resistance of such coil
is given as

V
R= (A 3.1)
I

where V is the potential difference across the coil and I is the dc

current through that coil. On introducing the core of soft iron, the
new values of potential difference across the coil, V ′and the current,
I ′ through it are measured again. The resistance of the coil with
iron core becomes

V′
R′ = (A 3.2)
I′
The resistance offered by the coil to the flow of alternating
current is known as impedance Z . If V ac and I ac respectively
be the alternating voltage and alternating current through
the coil, without iron core, then the impedance of the coil, is
given as
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Vac
(A 3.3) Z =
I ac

On introducing the iron core inside the coil, the value of the impedance
Z′ becomes

V ′ ac
(A 3.4) Z′ =
I ′ ac

where, V′ac is the alternating voltage across the inductor with core
inside and I′ac is the alternating current through the inductor with
core inside.

Fig. A 3.1 Inductor in a dc circuit: measurement Fig. A 3.2 I n d u c t o r i n a n ac c i r c u i t :

of resistance with (a) an air core measurement of impedance with
(b) a soft iron core (a) air core (b) soft iron core.

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P
ROCEDURE
1. For resistance of inductor without iron core, arrange the
apparatus as per the circuit diagram Fig. A 3.1 (a) by keeping
the key K open.
2. Connect the dc source and dc milliammeter in series with inductor
and voltmeter in parallel with it.
3. Adjust the battery eliminator to the lowest setting and switch
on the eliminator. Plug in the key. Adjust R so that the readings
are within scale. Measure the dc current and dc voltage across
the inductor.
4. Set the eliminator to higher voltages in succession and record the
dc current and dc voltage across the inductor.
5. For resistance of inductor with soft iron core, introduce the
iron core such that it is fully inside the coil. [Fig. A 3.1(b)].
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and record the current and voltage across
the inductor.
7. For measurement of impedance of inductor without iron
core, use step down transformer with various tappings (2V, 4V,
6V), ac voltmeter (0-5V) and ac ammeter (0-0.3A) and connect
them as shown in Fig. A 3.2(a).
8. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and for alternating current and alternating
voltage. Record the current and voltage across the inductor.
9. For measurement of impedance of inductor with soft iron
core, introduce the core of the soft iron inside the coil such that
the core is fully inside the coil. [Fig. A 3.2(b)].
10. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for alternating current and alternating
voltage. Record the current and voltage across the inductor.

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Range of dc voltmeter = 0 to...V
2. Least count of dc voltmeter = ...V
3. Range of dc ammeter = 0 to...mA
4. Least count of dc ammeter = ...mA
5. Range of ac voltmeter = 0 to...V
6. Least count of ac voltmeter =...V
7. Range of ac ammeter = 0 to...mA
8. Least count of ac ammeter =...mA
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Table A 3.1: Resistance of the inductor without

and with iron core
Sl. Battery Without iron core With iron core
No. Eliminator
Setting Voltage Current V Voltage Current V′
R= R′ =
I I′

V V (V) I (mA) R (Ω) V′ (V) I′ (mA) R′ (Ω)

1
2
3
4

Mean Mean

Table A 3.2: Impedance of the coil without and with iron core

Sl. Setting of Without iron core With iron core

No. ac voltage ac voltage
source V V′
Voltage Current Z= Voltage Current Z ′ =
I I′
V (V) I (mA) Z (Ω) V′ (V) I′ (mA) Z′ (Ω)

1
2
3
4

Mean Mean

C ALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the ratio of voltage and current for each observation to
get resistance and impedance.
2. Calculate the mean values of the resistance and impedance in
each case, i.e., without and with iron core.

R ESULT
1. The dc resistance of the inductor coil without iron core =...Ω
2. The dc resistance of the inductor coil with iron core =...Ω
3. The impedance of the inductor coil without iron core =...Ω
4. The impedance of the inductor coil with iron core =...Ω
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P RECAUTIONS
1. The ammeter should be connected in series with the coil and the
voltmeter in parallel with it.
2. The iron core should be inserted completely within the coil.
3. The ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand
paper before making the connections.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
The least count of the ac milliammeter and ac voltmeter may not
be small enough to accurately record the difference in impedance
on inserting the iron core.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by impedance of a circuit?
2. What differences do you observe in dc and ac ammeters and
voltmeters?
3. If iron core of the inductor coil is taken out, what effect will it have
on the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter and why?

D ISCUSSION
1. Compare the dc resistance of the coil with and without iron core.
It will be found that there is no change in the resistance of the
coil on introduction of iron core. Explain the result.
2. Compare the impedance of the coil with and without iron core. It
will be observed that the impedance increases on introduction of
iron core. Explain the result.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Repeat the ac measurement with wooden, plastic or copper cores (which

may have any length), Do you see any change in impedance on introduction
of such cores?

2. If the iron core is not fully inside, do you get the same change in imped-
ance?

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ACTIVITY 4
AIM
To measure resistance, voltage (dc/ac), current (dc) and check
continuity of a given circuit using a multimeter.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A multimeter with its test leads, a resistance box, a key, a cell, a step-
down transformer of 6 V output voltage, a rheostat, connecting wires
and a piece of sand paper.
(Note to teachers: Do not allow students to handle alternating current
sources of 220 V for safety considerations.)
Description of multimeter: A multimeter is an instrument that can
work as a current meter (ammeter) or a voltage meter (voltmeter) or a
resistance meter (ohmmeter). Sometimes it is also referred to as AVO
(ampere, volt and ohm) meter. It may measure resistance and potential
difference in both ac and dc circuits and current in dc circuit over several
ranges. The function and the range can be selected by means of either
a rotary selector knob or a combination of switches and sockets.
Multimeters are of two kinds : analog and digital.
Analog multimeter : Analog multimeter Fig. A 4.1 (a) is a dc
galvanometer which can be converted into an ammeter or a
voltmeter of different ranges to measure current or voltage or
resistance. For ac measurement, the root mean square (rms)
values of current and voltage are measured.
When using a multimeter to measure current, it must be
connected in series with the circuit. For measuring the voltage
difference between two points in a circuit, the two leads of the
multimeter are connected across them. For example, to measure
the voltage across a resistor, the multimeter is connected in
parallel with the resistor.
When the multimeter is in the resistance measuring mode, a
cell within the multimeter automatically gets connected, which
makes the current flow through the externally connected resistor
Fig. A 4.1(a) Analog multimeter whose resistance is being measured. The multimeter only senses
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this current with its dial calibrated in terms of the resistance. It is

essentially nonlinear in calibration.

Digital multimeter : Fig. A 4.1(b)

shows a digital multimeter.

To measure voltage and current

it uses a digital circuit called
ADC (analog to digital converter).
Since the ADC can accept a very
small input voltage, a sampling
of the input voltage/ current
is necessary.
Voltage is measured directly,
whereas current is converted into
proportional voltage using standard
resistors built in the instrument.
For resistance measurement, Fig. A 4.1(b) Digital multimeter
constant current sources are used.
It creates voltage proportional to resistance values which is then
digitised by the ADC.
The resolution of such meters depends on the range as well as the
number of digits in the display panel.

P
RINCIPLE
When the resistance R is connected in a circuit, for example as shown
in Fig. A 4.2, the potential difference across the two end points of the
resistor can be measured by connecting the multimeter (with proper
voltage setting) in parallel with the resistor.
The coil of the multimeter shows a deflection proportional to the direct
current (dc) passing through it.
Measurement of alternating Resistance Box
current is based on the
principle of heating effect of
current.
The current flowing through
the resistor can be measured by
connecting the multimeter (with To multimeter in resistance
proper current setting) in series measuring mode
as shown in Fig. A 4.5.
Fig. A 4.2 Use of multimeter as a resistance meter
The continuity of any electrical
component can be checked by measuring the resistance of the
component. An infinite resistance across the two ends of a component
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T
X Z

ac mains
Y To multimeter
in ac
RBOX measuring mode

Step down K
transformer
(6V)

Fig. A 4.3 Use of multimeter as a dc voltmeter Fig. A 4.4 Use of multimeter as ac voltmeter

Fig. A 4.5 Use of multimeter as an ammeter

indicates a discontinuity. A very low resistance (≤ 0.1 Ω) between the

two ends of a component indicates that the component under test has
a short circuit. (Fig. A 4.2).

P ROCEDURE
Analog multimeter
1. Clean the ends of connecting wires by a sand paper till they shine.
Preferably, use fresh connecting wires, as wires not in use for
long may have some insulating layer deposited on them. Also
check that the metallic ends of the multimeter test leads are not
having any rust or any insulating layer deposited on them.
2. For measurement of resistance: set the multimeter in resistance
measuring mode. Connect the red and black probes to the
multimeter.
3. Connect open end of the red probe directly to the black probe
and adjust the zero adjustment knob to read zero ohm on the
resistance scale (extreme right).
4. Separate the two metallic ends of the test probes and connect the
resistance box with the multimeter as shown in Fig. A 4.2.
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5. Insert a resistor of known resistance R in the circuit by taking

out the corresponding resistor key from the resistance box and
read multimeter reading R M for the value of resistance of the
resistor used in the circuit. Repeat this step for four more resistors.
6. Carefully observe the reading in the non-linear scale noting that
its zero lies at the extreme right of the scale. Use the multiplication
factor appropriately to the range selected.
For example: 4 divisions of deflection in R × 100 scale means
resistance measured is 4 × 100Ω = 400Ω.
7. For measurement of dc voltage: select the suitable position of
the function switch (ac/dc) and then select the highest range
available. Ensure that the test probes are inserted/ connected in
sockets with proper polarity. It is a convention to use red probe
for positive and black probe for negative polarity.
8. Connect the multimeter in the circuit as shown in Fig. A 4.3.
9. Set the multimeter to measure the dc voltage. Select a suitable
range. For example, if a cell of 1.5V emf (say) is used in the circuit,
keep the range at 2.5V.
10. To measure the emf of the cell, connect the positive terminal of
the multimeter to the positive terminal of the cell and negative
terminal to negative terminal of the cell, through a plug key K.
Do not insert any resistor of resistance R in the circuit from the
resistance box. Insert the key in the plug K of the circuit and
read the multimeter reading. (A continuous flow of current in the
circuit will heat the connecting wires). Record your observations
in Table A 4.2. Then open the key K.
11. Now insert a resistance R of known value (10 Ω say) by taking
out the resistance key from the resistance box in the circuit. Insert
the key in the plug K. Read the multimeter reading for measuring
the potential difference across the two ends of the resistor. Do
you find any change in the reading as observed in step 10 when
there was no resistance in the circuit (i.e. R = 0)?
12. Repeat step 11 for three more values of resistance in the circuit.
Record your observations in Table A 4.2.
13. For measurement of ac voltage: connect an ac step down
transformer of 6 V output voltage, a rheostat XY as voltage divider,
resistance box RBOX, a plug key K, and the multimeter as shown
in Fig. A 4.4. Fix the value of R to be 5 ohm (say).
14. Set the multimeter to act as an ac voltmeter at 10V range.
15. Bring the variable connector Z of the rheostat close to point X. In
this situation the resistance of rheostat coil would be minimum.
Close the key in the plug K and record the multimeter reading
for ac voltage drop across the resistor of resistance R in Table A
4.3. Repeat the observations for atleast four positions of the
variable connection (Z) of the rheostat on coil XY (Table A 4.3).

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Note to students: Please do not handle alternating current

sources of 220 V for safety considerations.
16. For measurement of dc current: select the function switch
and the range switch/sockets suitable for proper dc current
measurement. For example, if one cell of 1.5 V emf is used in
the circuit as a source and the value of resistance to be used
during the experiment varies from 2 Ω to 10 Ω, a range of 1A
(or 1000 mA) would be appropriate.
17. Insert the probes of the multimeter in series with the cell so that
the positive terminal of the multimeter is connected to the positive
terminal of the cell and negative terminal of the multimeter with
the negative terminal of the cell as shown in Fig. A 4.5.
18. Read the multimeter reading for measuring the dc current flowing
through the multimeter.
19. Bring a resistance (R) in the circuit and read multimeter reading
for measuring the current flowing in the circuit after closing the
key in plug K. Repeat it for four more values of resistance (R) in
the circuit. Record the observations in Table A 4.4.
Digital multimeter
Procedure for measuring voltage, current and resistances is very
similar to that of the analog measurement. The notable difference is
that digital multimeter is not vulnerable to damage as easily as their
analog counterparts. They can accept voltage with reversed polarities
(shown by positive and negative sign), and display the number as
and when the magnitude of the measured quantity crosses the upper
limit of the range used.
There are no adjustments required (on any of the ranges) for
measuring R.

O BSERVATIONS
1. Range of resistance scale on the multimeter panel =... Ω
2. Least count of the scale =... Ω
Table A 4.1 : Measurement of resistance

Sl. No. Resistance R as Multimeter reading Difference

indicated in RM
R – RM = [ R–RM ]
resistance box
(Ω) (Ω) (Ω)
1
2
--
5

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 ACTIVITY 4 13

Range of dc voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel = ... V

Least count of the scale = ... V
Table A 4.2 : Measurement of dc voltage

Sl. No. Resistance R in Multimeter reading

the circuit (Ω) for voltage (V)
1
2
--
5

Range of ac voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel = ...V

Least count of the scale = ...V
Table A 4.3 : Measurement of ac voltage drop across a resistor
of resistance R = ...Ω

Sl. No. Position of variable connection Multimeter reading (V)

Z of the rheostat on coil XY
1 Close to point X
2
--
5 Close to point Y

Range of dc current scale selected on the multimeter panel = ... mA

Least count of the scale = ... mA

Table A 4.4 : Measurement of dc current

Sl. No. Resistance R in Multimeter reading

the circuit (Ω) for current (mA)
1
2
--
5

R
ESULT
1. The dc/ac voltage, dc current and resistance have been measured
using a multimeter.

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2. The values of resistance measured by the multimeter is nearly

the same as the decoded values of resistors.

P RECAUTIONS
1. Appropriate selection of function switch and range switch for a
given measurement of voltage or current and resistance should
be made.
2. The polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper
polarities in measuring dc voltage and current.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. The scale used in reading of voltage/ current may be improper.
2. Zero adjustment in measuring R with analog multimeter may not
be accurate.

D ISCUSSION
1. If in place of a resistance box, carbon resistors are used, the
heating of carbon resistor should be avoided. Heating of resistors
may change the resistance value of the resistor.
2. The percentage error in the measurement is more for smaller
values of the measured quantity.
3. If the two test leads of the multimeter are not identical, and also
there is significant resistance across the junctions of the
multimeter (test leads and the test resistance), how is your
measurement going to be affected?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
Can the measurement of dc voltage/ current be done using ac
voltage/ current function switch? Justify your answer.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

A collection of assorted colour coded resistors are provided to you. Verify the
decoded values using multimeter within the tolerance limit specified by the code
on the resistor.

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ACTIVITY 5
AIM
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three
(on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three (on/off) switches, socket, a fuse
of 1.0 A, plug, flexible connecting wire, main switch.

P RINCIPLE
If P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, ... be the power consumed by different domestic
electrical appliances in a circuit then the total power consumption, P
at any instant is given by

P = P1+ P2+ P3+ P4+ P5+ ... (A 5.1)

If electric potential is V, then current I drawn from the mains is given by

P (A 5.2)
I =
V

where P is in watt, V in volt

and I in ampere.
In order to protect the
appliances from damage,
when accidentally a high
current is drawn (e.g. when
the terminals of the appliance
get accidentally connected), a
fuse of rating little higher (10
to 20 per cent higher than the
current normally drawn) is
connected in series with the
set of appliances (Fig. A 5.1).
Fig. A 5.1

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P ROCEDURE
1. Take the bulbs B1, B2, B3 and connect them in series with switches
S1, S2 and S3 respectively. Connect B1, B2, B3 alongwith S1, S2, S3
in parallel with each other as shown in Fig. A 5.1.
2. Connect fuse F in series with the set up as shown in Fig. A 5.1.
Connect a plug and the socket at the end of two leads. Connect a
wire from the earth pin of the plug.
3. Insert the plug in socket provided in the main electric board.
4. Press the switches S1, S2, S3 one by one and observe the bulb
that is switched on and off independently of the other bulb.
5. Press all the switches simultaneously and observe what happens.
Record your observations.

R ESULT
Household circuit assembly is complete and installed with safety.

P RECAUTIONS
1. Care should be taken while working with mains.
2. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse by calculating the
maximum current drawn by the circuit.

D ISCUSSION
1. Fuse is a safety device. Never use fuse of much higher rating
than the recommended value.
2. The rating of the main electricity in our houses is determined by the
total power requirements. In general it is 220 V, 30 A and
50 Hz. The supply is connected to a distribution board which divides
the power into different circuits; some having a rating of 220 V,
15 A meant for heavy duty appliances like room heater,
airconditioner, geysers, hot plates etc., others have a rating of 220
V, 5 A meant for light appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans etc.
Let us consider one electrical circuit with 220 V, 5 A supply. In
such a circuit all appliances are connected in parallel with a switch.
This switch is in series with each appliance in supply live line.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Calculate the maximum current drawn for three bulbs used in
the circuit.
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES
1. Draw a circuit diagram consisting of two light points, one fan point
and one plug point.
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ACTIVITY 6
AIM
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Potentiometer, battery eliminator of constant voltage, dc power
supply or lead accumulator, voltmeter and ammeter of suitable
range, plug key, jockey, rheostat, connecting wires, etc.

P RINCIPLE
If a steady current is flowing through a wire of uniform area of cross
section and having its resistance per unit length constant, potential
drop V across two points of the wire is directly proportional to the
length l between those two points.

Mathematically, Vαl

P ROCEDURE
1. Set up the electrical
circuit as shown in
Fig. A 6.1.
2. Connect positive
terminal of the battery
to point A (zero length)
of the potentiometer.
3. Connect negative end
of the battery to the
other end B (point) of
the potentiometer wire
through an ammeter,
plug key and a Fig. A 6.1 Circuit to study variation in potential drop
rheostat. The ammeter
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should be connected in such a way that its negative terminal is

connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
4. Connect positive end of the voltmeter to point A and other end to
a jockey J.
5. Now close the key K and press the jockey at point B. Adjust the
rheostat to get full scale deflection in voltmeter.
6. When jockey is pressed at point A, you will get zero deflection in
the voltmeter.
7. Now press the jockey at 40 cm and note the corresponding
voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat your observation by pressing the jockey at various lengths
like 80 cm, 120 cm etc. which may extend upto, say 400 cm of
potentiometer wire. Record voltmeter reading in each case as
shown in Table A 6.1.

O BSERVATIONS
Range of the voltmeter = ... V
Least count of the voltmeter = ...V
Zero error = ... V

Table A 6.1: Variation in potential drop with length

Sl. No. Length of potential wire over Voltmeter reading φ = V/l

which potential drop is V (V) (V cm–1)
measured l (cm)

1
2
--
5

Mean
C ALCULATIONS

The ratio ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = φ is calculated. It is the potential gradient of the wire.

V
⎝ l ⎠
Its value is almost constant.

P LOTTING GRAPH
Plot a graph of V versus I, with V on y-axis and I on x-axis. Slope of
the line gives φ .
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R ESULT

V 
The ratio   = φ is found to be constant within the limits of
l
experimental error. Its mean value is... V cm–1.

The graph shows a linear relationship between V and l . The value of

V 
  = φ from the graph is ... V cm–1.
l

P RECAUTIONS
1. Zero error in the voltmeter and ammeter (if there is any) should
be corrected by adjusting the screw provided at the base of
the needle.
2. The current in the wire should remain constant throughout the
experiment. To ensure this, current should be drawn
intermittently for short duration of time. It should be monitored
by an ammeter and readjusted whenever necessary, with the help
of a rheostat.
3. Do not press the wire too hard with the jockey while noting down
the observations or else there is a possibility that the wire will
become non-uniform (diameter will change) at these points during
the course of time.
4. Check for uniformity of wire at its various points before the start
of the experiment. If wire is non-uniform, the potential gradient
will not be constant.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire must have a uniform cross section along its entire
length. This should be checked by measuring its diameter at
various points before the start of the experiment.
2. Voltmeter may not give accurate reading.

D ISCUSSION
1. The potentiometer wire is connected firmly to thick copper
strips after every 100 cm of its length of 400 or 1000 cm.
However, these small sections of wire do not contribute to the
total length of the potentiometer wire since electrical current
flows through the copper strips rather than the potentiometer
wire in these sections.

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2. Potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current from

the voltage source being measured. As such it is unaffected by
the internal resistance of the source.
3. If the graph is non-linear, what conclusion will you draw?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A 100 cm wire of homogeneous material and uniform area of cross-
section form a square as shown in Fig. A 6.2. How can this
arrangement be used to select voltages 1/4, 1/2, 3/4 of the
voltage across AE.

2. A rheostat Rh used in laboratories along with a key K,

battery of emf E and internal resistance r is shown in
Fig. A 6.3. RL is some load resistance that represents
an auxiliary circuit which may be there in reality. If D
is the midpoint of the wire AB, what would be the
voltmeter reading? Does it depend on the value of RL or
Fig. A 6.2 RV, if RV represents the resistance of the voltmeter? Does
it depend on r ?

Fig. A 6.3

3. Consider a case in the above problem, wherein a potential

difference across ends A and B of the wire is 3 V. An experiment
requires a potential difference of 1.7 V as precise as possible.
Think of the possibilities of reducing emf of the source, using
another resistor in series or using a rheostat of the same resistance
but of greater length.
Is it possible to get negative potentials using the same circuit? If
yes, how?
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SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Connect a circuit as shown in Fig. A 6.3. Record potential difference at

various length l from end A. Plot a graph of V versus l. Obtain from the graph
the length that corresponds to 1.3 V. Draw a circuit diagram to show how
you can supply 1.3 V to an auxiliary circuit that works at 1.3 V.

2. A small circuit called the ‘level indicator’ (popularly known as dancing LED’s)
is available in the entertainment electronics market. It is often used in
stereophonic two-in-one recorders or graphic equalisers. Connect such a
circuit in place of a voltmeter in this activity and estimate the voltage levels
at which the LED’s in the array glow one after another.

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ACTIVITY 7
AIM
To study the effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the
source) on a LDR (Light Dependent Resistor).

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

LDR, two power supplies (12 V each), key, milliammeter (0-500mA),
voltmeter (0-10V), a resistance of 47 Ω, a 12 V lamp, connecting
wires.

PRINCIPLE
Light dependent resistor or a
photoresistor is a device that is sensitive
to light. Its resistance varies according to
the intensity of light incident on it. It is
made from a semiconductor material with
light resistors to have light sensitive
properties, one such materials is,
cadmium sulphide. Snake–like tracks are
made of cadmium sulphide on thin metal
films [Fig. A 7.1]. LDR has a high
Fig. A 7.1 A Light Dependent resistance due to the fact that majority of
Resistance (LDR). electrons are locked into the crystal lattice
and not free to move. As light falls on the
lattice, some of the electrons get sufficient energy to break free the
crystal lattice to conduct electricity. A typical LDR has a resistance
of 1 MΩ in total darkness and a few hundred ohm resistance in
bright light.

P ROCEDURE
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. A 7.2.
2. First keep the lamp switched off. Plug in the key K.
3. Observe and record voltmeter and milliammeter readings.
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4. Calculate the reference measurement of LDR resistance R′.

5. Add this value of resistance to
all further measurements. This
ensures that background
illumination has been taken
into account.
6. Set up a 12 V lamp on a fixed stand
in vertical position facing LDR.
Adjust LDR normally below the
lamp at about 10 cm (say).
7. Observe milliammeter and
voltmeter readings.
8. Changing the distance between
Fig. A 7.2 Circuit to study the effect of
lamp and LDR by 15 cm (say)
intensity of light on a LDR.
repeat step 7. Record your
observation and calculate
resistance of LDR at different
distances of the lamp.

O BSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Range of voltmeter = 0 V to ...V
Least count of voltmeter = ...V
Range of milliammeter = 0 mA to ...mA
Least count of milliammeter = ...mA
Table A 7.1 : Variation in resistance of LDR with distance

Sl. No. Distance Voltmeter milliammeter V Actual value of

between Reading Reading R= Ω resistance
I
LDR and V (V) I (mA) (R + R′) Ω
the source
d cm

1
2
--
5

R
ESULT
As distance increases, intensity of incident light decreases and resist-
ance of LDR increases.
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P RECAUTIONS
1. LDR is placed normally to the light source so that angle of inci-
dence of light rays remain constant and normal throughout the
experiment.
2. All the connections should be made tight.

S OURCES OF ERROR
Background illumination is a source of error in this activity.

D ISCUSSION
1. Calculate the product R.d2 in each case. What do you infer?
2. LDRs are used especially in light or dark sensor circuit. It is used
in automatic lighting, street light, smoke alarm etc.
3. A suitable resistance is connected in series with LDR to prevent it
from damage.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
Why does the resistance of LDR not remain constant?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Perform the above activity in totally dark room. Compare and discuss the
result with that obtained with normal light in the laboratory.
2. Study the effect of intensity of light on an LDR by using bulbs of different
power, keeping the distance same.
3. Provide variable voltage values to power up the light bulb and observe
variations in resistance with intensity keeping the distance between LDR
and bulb same.
4. Study the effect of intensity of light on LDR of different specifications.

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ACTIVITY 8
AIM
To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor
from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor and
capacitor.

P RINCIPLE
A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased
and does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light
while conducting.
A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It
emits light while conducting.
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter
(E), base (B) and collector (C).
An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in the form of a
chip. But some may have only three terminals, e.g. 7805, 7806,
7809, 7912.
A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts equally in both
directions.
A capacitor is a two terminal device. It does not conduct but stores
some charge when dc voltage is applied.

P ROCEDURE
1. Check the physical appearance of the component.
(a) If it has four or more terminals and has the appearance of a
chip (black rectangular block), then it is an IC.

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(a) (a) (b)

+Non
inverting
Inverting

(c)

(d)

(e) (f)

Fig. A 8.1 (a) Diode (b) LED (c) Transistor (d) IC (e) Resistor (f) Capacitor

(b) If it has three terminals, the component may be a transistor.

To confirm, set-up the multimeter in resistance mode
(highest range). Connect its black or common terminal to
one of the extreme legs of the component and the second
terminal (red or positive) to the central leg. Check the
multimeter deflection. If a deflection is observed, interchange
the multimeter terminals. If no deflection is observed, the
component is a transistor. Repeat this test by connecting
the multimeter terminals to the central leg and the other
extreme leg. If a similar behaviour is observed, the
component is a transistor.
(2) If the component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a
capacitor, a diode or a LED.

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(a) Look for colour bands, if it has a typical set of three colour
bands followed by a silver or gold band, the component is a
resistor.
(b) Connect the multimeter terminals (in resistance mode-
highest range) to the component terminals and watch for
multimeter deflection. Also repeat by reversing the
component terminals.
(c) If the multimeter shows an equal deflection in both the
directions, the component is a resistor.
(d) If the deflection is accompanied with emission of light, in one
direction and a much less or zero deflection in the other
direction the component is a LED.
(e) If the multimeter does not show any deflection in one direction
and shows deflection with no light emission in the other
direction then, the component is a diode.
(f) If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting
its terminals either way to the component, it is a capacitor.
But if capacitance of capacitor is large, multimeter may show
a momentary deflection.
(g) Record your observations in Table A 8.1 and A 8.2.

Note to teachers

(i) Avoid giving an IC with three terminals.

(ii) Preferably use analog multimeter and not the digital
multimeter.
(iii) In case of digital multimeter, the term “deflection” in the
instructions may be read as “reading”.
(iv) Label each component by a different alphabet e.g., A, B,
C, D, E...

O
BSERVATIONS
Table A 8.1 : Checking for the number of terminals

Alphabet marked Name of the Device

Sl.No. No. of terminals
on the device

1 Two
2 Three
3 More than three

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Table A 8.2 : Checking for the state of conduction

Sl.No. State of Device Code Name of the device

conduction

1 Conducts in one direction

only without any emission
of light
2 Conducts in one direction
only with emission of light
3 Three terminal device;
conducts in one direction
only between central
terminal and either of the
remaining two terminals
4 Conducts in both
directions
5 Does not conduct, gives an
initial deflection which
decays to zero

R ESULT
A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor are
identified respectively from a mixed collection.

P RECAUTION
While obtaining resistance of any component, clean its
leads properly.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. When the metal ends of a multimeter leads are touched, the
multimeter should show zero resistance. If it does not show
it, bring the pointer to zero using ‘Zero Adj knob’ on the
multimeter. If it is not done, the resistance measurements are
not reliable.
2. While checking resistance of a component, avoid touching either
of the metal ends of the multimeter leads. Body resistance in
parallel with component resistance can affect the resistance
measurement.

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SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

Studies of the basic circuit components such as resistor, capacitor

may be undertaken on the following lines:
1. Resistors
Types of resistors
(a) Wire wound resistors: These are made by winding a specified
length of wire of some conducting material. The material may be
any alloy like mangnnin, constantan, nicrome etc.*
(b) Carbon resistors: They are made of a mixture of graphite (a
form of carbon) and a good insulator like shellac in a specified
proportion. The mixture is pressed and moulded onto rods
by heating. By varying this proportion, carbon resistors are
made for a very wide range of values. The stability of such
resistors is poor but they are cheap and small.
(c) Carbon film resistors**: Carbon resistors are cheap and easily
available. A thin film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic
rod. The resistive coating is spiralled on it to get the desired value
of resistance.
(d) Thin film resistors: These are made by depositing a very thin film
of a conducting material on some insulating base. The thin film
provides a very small cross-sectional area. Hence a large
resistance. The films may be made from a metal or an alloy.
Tolerance of a resistor
The actual resistance value of a certain resistor may be different from
its specified value. This may be due to external influences like changes
in temperature, humidity etc. or due to the inherent limitation in
manufacturing a given precise value. Deviations in the resistance value
due to later cause is known as tolerance.
Wattage of a resistor
Every resistor has a maximum safe current that it can carry. Currents
larger than that will produce excessive heat and may damage it. This
is usually measured not in terms of the current, but in terms of
maximum watt of power that can be dissipated in the resistor without
causing any damage. It is known as its wattage. Common wattages
for carbon resistors are 1/8, 1/2, 1 and 2 watts. Higher wattages are
also available.
Colour code for resistor
Most common colour code used for resistor consists of three colour
bands at one end.

171
* Wire wound resistors have more undesirable inductance than the other types of resistors.
**See appendix 3 for details.
LABORATORY MANUAL

The colour and their numerical meanings are:

Black – 0 Orange – 3 Blue – 6 White – 9
Brown – 1 Yellow – 4 Violet – 7
Red – 2 Green – 5 Grey – 8
This colour code could be remembered
easily by the term BBROY GB VGW (B B
ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife). To
read the resistance of a colour coded
resistor, start with the strip nearest to
the end. The colour of the first strip gives
the first digit in the resistance value. The
colour of the second strip stands for the
second digit. The colour of third strip
indicates the value of multiplier or the
number of zero following second
number.

Fig. A 8.2 A carbon resistor with colour code marking Resistors with only three bands have a
tolerance of 20%. Its actual value may
vary 20% up or down from its indicated
value. If a fourth band is added separated from the first three, then
the tolerance of the resistor is known from the colour of the fourth
band. If the colour of the fourth band is silver, then tolerance is 10%.
Gold colour represents 5% tolerance red represents 2% and brown
represents 1%. The ohmic values are often printed on 2% and 1%
resistors.

2. Capacitor
Capacitor is a device that stores electrical charge. A capacitor blocks
the passage of dc while it allows ac to flow through it.
There are many types of capacitors having different types of dielectrics
in general use. These are
(i) Air capacitor (variable gang capacitors)
(ii) Mica capacitor (low capacitance)
(iii) Ceramic capacitor (very low capacitance)
(iv) Paper capacitor (low capacitance)
(v) Plastic capacitor
(vi) Electrolytic capacitor (medium capacitance)
(vii) Oil filled capacitor (high capacitance)

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3. Diode
In some semiconductor junction diodes, a silver ring is shown on one
of its end. This end of the diode is n-side and the other end is p-side
[Fig. A 8.3(a)]. In some diodes, the symbol of the diode is painted on
the body of the diode. The direction of arrow is the direction of current
flow. Hence, the side from which the arrow starts is p-side and the
side towards which the arrow ends is n-side [Fig. A 8.3 (b)]. Some
diodes are bullet shaped in which case the flat side is p-side and the
cylindrical side is n-side [Fig. A 8.3 (c)]. In case of a light emitting
diode (LED), usually the shorter pin is n-side and the longer pin is p-
side [Fig. A 8.3 (d)].

Fig. A 8.3 Shapes of some diodes

4. Transistors
In this activity, a method to distinguish between n-p-n and p-n-p
type transistors has been given, provided the pin diagram of the
transistor is known. In case, if no pin diagram is known, one can still
determine the type (n-p-n or p-n-p) of the given transistor. This can
be done by measuring the resistance values between different
terminals of the given transistor [(Fig. A 8.4) (a) and (b)]. Table A 9.5
(p.181) summarises the nature of resistance values for n-p-n and p-
n-p transistors.

Fig. A 8.4 Different transistor terminals

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ACTIVITY 9
AIM
Use of Multimeter to
(A) check whether the diode is in working order and to check
unidirectional flow of current in a diode; (B) identify emitter, base
collector of a transistor; (C) distinguish between n-p-n and p-n-p
transistors and check whether the transistor is in working order.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A multimeter, a diode, a transistor (whose base diagram is known),
plug key, a battery, resistance box, connecting wires and sand paper.

PPRINCIPLE
Analog multimeter used in resistance mode
In this selection a circuit with a battery and resistors come into
play. The circuit diagram
below (Fig. A 9.1)
indicates the main
circuit components:
a 3V battery (provided
in the multimeter), a
fixed resistance, a
rheostat and a
galvanometer G. Red
and black leads are
c o n n e c t e d a t fixed
resistance ends B and Fig. A 9.1 Multimeter in resistance mode
A respectively.
The deflection is adjusted to full scale deflection (zero mark on the
scale), using the rheostat (zero adjust) by first shorting the red and
black leads. Any resistance which has to be tested/evaluated is placed
between A and B. The deflection due to current in the circuit is
calibrated to read the resistance.

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 ACTIVITY 9

You will notice that the black lead is actually connected to the positive
and red to the negative of the internal 3 V battery. While measuring
values of resistances, it is immaterial how they are connected across
A and B. However, it becomes important when this battery also provides
the bias for a diode or a transistor junction.

(A) Checking whether a diode is in working order and whether

flow of electric current is unidirectional through it
A semiconductor junction diode,
when connected (or biased) in the
forward direction, offers a low
resistance. However, when it is biased
in the reverse direction, it offers a very
high resistance. Therefore, the
working of a junction diode can be
examined by measuring its resistance
in the forward and reverse bias
conditions. The functioning of
junction diode can also be examined
by checking the unidirectional flow
of current in a circuit as shown in
Fig. A 9.2. For a diode in proper Fig. A 9.2 A semiconductor junction
working order, a substantial current diode in the forward bias
(of the order of few mA) will flow in the
forward bias condition. If the polarity of the bias is reversed (i.e.,
diode in reverse bias condition), negligible current (of the order of
few µA) will flow.

(B) Identification of emitter, base and collector of a transistor

In general, each transistor has
three pins of the same size. In some E B C
transistors a dot or mark is put on
the body near one of the pins. This
pin is the emitter. The Emitter (E), E B C
Base (B) and Collector (C) of a
transistor can be identified using
its pin diagram. Fig. A 9.3 shows
the base diagram of a typical metal
capped cylindrical transistor. This
Fig. A 9.3 Base diagram of a typical metal-capped
has been drawn by keeping the
cylindrical transistor. Note that the pin
pins of transistor pointing connections may be different for different
upwards. In fact, there is no transistors. It is advisable to refer to
universal pin diagram for the the manufacturer’s data sheet.
transistors. One can find the pin
diagram of a given transistor (transistors have code numbers AC
127, BC548, 2N3055HL 100 etc.) in most transistor manuals.

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(C) Distinguishing between n-p-n and p-n-p transistors and

checking whether the given transistor
(p-n-p or n-p-n) is in working order
E n p n C E p n p C
The base B of an n-p-n transistor is p-type
material whereas emitter E and collector C
B B are of n-type materials (Fig. A 9.4 a).
n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor Therefore, the forward resistance between the
base B and the emitter E (or collector C)
(a) (b)
should have a low value. In case of a p-n-p
Fig. A 9.4 Schematic representation of (a) n-p-n, transistor (Fig. A 9.4 (b) (whose emitter E, base
and (b) p-n-p transistors B, and collector C are p-, n- and p-type
materials respectively), the forward resistance
between the emitter and base should be low.
The resistances between the base-emitter, and base-collector are
measured. For a transistor in working order, resistance values follow
the results as shown in Table A 9.1.

Table A 9.1 : Resistance values between different terminals of n-p-n and p-n-p
transistors

Sl.No. One of the transistor termi- Transistor Bias Resistance

nals (B, C or E) connected terminal
to negative lead (black) connected with
of the multimeter positive (red) lead
of the multimeter
A. For n-p-n transistor

1 E B Forward Low

2 C B Forward Low

3 B C Reverse Very high

4 B E Reverse Very high

B. For p-n-p transistor

1 B E Forward Low

2 B C Forward Low

3 E B Reverse Very high

4 C B Reverse Very high

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Any deviation from the results shown in Table A 9.1 would indicate
that the given transistor is not in working order. For example, for an
p-n-p transistor, a low resistance value between terminal E (when
connected with the negative lead of the multimeter) and terminal B
(when connected with positive lead of the multimeter) indicates that
the transistor’s terminals E and B are short-circuited. For a working
transistor, it should have shown very high resistance, being reverse
biased.

P
ROCEDURE
1. The diodes, transistors, and connecting wires may have some
insulating layers on their surface if they are not used for a long
time. Therefore, clean their ends using a sand paper till they shine.

(A) Checking whether a diode is in working order and whether

flow of electric current is unidirectional through it
2. Set the multimeter in resistance measuring mode.
3. Connect the diode terminal 1 with the positive lead of the
multimeter and terminal 2 with the negative lead of the
multimeter. Measure the diode resistance. Reverse the diode
connections and again measure the diode resistance. Record your
observations in Table A 9.2. Also conclude whether the given
diode is in working order or not.
Note: A low value of diode resistance (ranging from few Ω to kΩ)
indicates that the diode is connected in forward bias. While
a very high value of resistance (of the order of MΩ), indicates
that the diode is connected in reverse bias.
If both the resistance values, i.e., in reverse and forward
directions, are low then it means that the diode is short-circuited.
On the other hand if both the resistance values are very high,
then the diode junction may be considered as discontinuous or
open. Thus, in both the conditions, the diode condition may be
concluded as not in working order.
4. Identify the p-and n-terminals of the given diode from
the observations.
5. Connect the diode with the cell and resistance box in a series
circuit (without key ON) as shown in Fig. A 9.2. Set the
multimeter in current measuring mode at a suitable range (mA,
start from high current range).
6. Take out a suitable resistance R from the resistance box in the
circuit to restrict the current within the current range chosen (in
the multimeter). Put the key ON and measure the current flowing
through the circuit. Record your observations in Table A 9.3.
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7. Repeat step 6 for a few more values of resistance R in the circuit.

8. Reverse the polarity of diode (now the diode is reverse biased) and
repeat steps 6 and 7.

(B) and (C) Identifying n-p-n and p-n-p transistors and

checking whether the given transistor (p-n-p or n-p-n) is in
working order
9. Identify the emitter E, base B, and collector C of the given transistor
by observing dot or a mark on the body of transistor near one of
its pins. Draw the base and schematic diagrams of the given
transistor in your notebook.
10. Set the multimeter in ‘resistance measuring mode’.
11. Connect the positive (red) lead of the multimeter with the base
and negative led (black) with emitter (or collector) terminal and
measure the resistance. Record the observations in Table A 9.4.
12. Reverse the connections of the multimeter and again measure the
resistance values between the transistor’s base B and emitter E
(or collector C) terminals. Record observations in Table A 9.4.
13. From Table A 9.4, check whether the given transistor is in working
order or not.
14. For a transistor that is in working order, using the information
given in Table A 9.1, infer the nature of the given transistor (n-p-
n or p-n-p).

O BSERVATIONS

1. Table A 9.2 : Measurement of diode resistance

Sl. No. Diode terminal connected Diode terminal connected Resistance

with the positive lead with the negative lead of (Ω)
of the multimeter the multimeter

1 1 2
2 2 1

2. Table A 9.3 : Unidirectional flow of current through a diode

(a) When diode is connected in forward bias

Sl. No. Resistance (Ω) Current (mA)

1
2
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(b) When diode is connected in reverse bias

Sl. No. Resistance (Ω) Current (mA)

1
2
3

3. Table A 9.4: Resistance values between different transistor terminals

Transistor terminal Transistor terminal

Sl. connected with the Resistance
connected with the negative
No. positive lead of the (Ω)
lead of the multimeter
multimeter
1 B E
2 B C
3 E B
4 C B

R ESULT
1. The p- and n-sides of the given diode are identified from Table
A 9.2.
2. The given diode is/is not in working order (from Tables A 9.2
and A 9.3)
3. The unidirectional flow of current in a diode has/has not been
realised (from Table A 9.3).
4. The three terminals of the given transistor have been identified
and the pin diagram has been shown in Fig. A 9.3.
5. The given transistor is n-p-n/p-n-p (from Table A 9.4).
6. The given transistor is/is not in working order (from Table
A 9.4).

P
RECAUTIONS
1. While obtaining resistance of any component, clean its leads
properly.
2. Use the selector switch of the multimeter carefully for various
measuring modes.

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S OURCES OF ERROR
1. When the metal ends of multimeter leads are touched, the
multimeter should show zero resistance. If it does not show this,
bring the pointer to zero using ‘zero Adj knob’ on the multimeter.
If it is not done, the resistance measurements are not reliable.
2. While checking resistance of a component, avoid touching both
the metal ends of the multimeter leads. Body resistance in parallel
with component resistance can af fect the resistance
measurement.

D ISCUSSION
1. In a transistor, the junction joining the base region and the
emitter region is called base-emitter junction. The junction
joining the base region and the collector region is called base-
collector region.
2. When multimeter is in current measuring mode, shunt
resistance of different values are introduced in the circuit
paralleled with the coil. In voltage measuring mode
resistances of different values come in contact with the circuit
in series with the coil. When you select the switch of the
multimeter for measurement of resistance, different
resistances are introduced in circuit in series with the cell
of the multimeter.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
Find the base of a transistor if pin diagram is not available. You may
use the Table A 9.5 for this purpose.
Using the results given in Table A 9.5, it can be determined whether
the given transistor is n-p-n or p-n-p type.

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Table A 9.5 : Nature of resistance values between different transistor

terminals (when pin diagram is not known)

(Note: Here terminal 2 is assumed as the base pin of transistor)

Transistor terminal Transistor terminal

Sl. Nature of
connected with the connected with the
No. resistance
positive lead of the negative lead of the
multimeter multimeter

A. For n-p-n transistor

1 1 2 Very high
2 1 3 Very high
3 2 1 Low
4 2 3 Low
5 3 1 Very high
6 3 2 Very high

B. For p-n-p transistor

1 1 2 Low
2 2 1 Very high
3 1 3 Very high
4 3 1 Very high
5 2 3 Very high
6 3 2 Low

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ACTIVITY 10
AIM
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident
obliquely on a glass slab.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Drawing board, rectangular glass slab, white sheet of paper,
adhesive tape (cello-tape), drawing pins, a metre scale, alpins,
protractor, sharp pencil and eraser.

PRINCIPLE
When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, it is
refracted through it. It emerges out of the slab parallel to the
direction of the incident ray. The emergent ray suffers only a lateral
displacement. For a given angle of incidence and a pair of media,
the lateral deviation is proportional to the thickness of the glass
slab.

PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of
cello-tape or drawing pins.

2. Place the glass slab lengthwise symmetrically at the centre of the

paper sheet and mark its boundary ABCD (Fig. A10.1) on the
paper sheet with a sharp pencil.

3. Draw a normal at a point F on the face AB. Draw a line EF,

representing the incident ray, making an angle i the angle of
incidence with the normal.

4. Fix two alpins P and Q with sharp tips, about 8 to 10 cm apart,

vertically on the line EF.

5. Observe the images of the two pins through the face

opposite of the glass slab. Fix two more alpins R and S
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about 8 to 10 cm apart,
vertically on the white paper
sheet carefully with their
tips in line with the tips of
the images of P and Q. Take
care that the tips of all the
alpins appear to be on a
straight line.

6. Remove the glass slab and

mark the pin prick positions
of the alpins on the white
paper sheet with a pencil.
Draw a straight line GH,
representing the emergent
ray, passing through the
points marked R and S,
meeting the face CD at G.

7. Draw the line FG to represent

the refracted ray. Draw a
normal at the point G on the
face CD; making an angle of Fig. A10.1 Refraction through a rectangular glass
emergence e with the normal. slab
Measure the angle of
incidence i a n d a n g l e o f
emergence e with a protractor. Write the values of these angles
on the white paper sheet. Do you find some relation between ∠i
and ∠e ?

8. Extrapolate EF forward to meet the face CD of the glass slab at

O. Draw the perpendicular OL to the line GH.

9. Check if the emergent ray GH is parallel to the incident

ray EF along the original direction. It is laterally
deviated by a perpendicular distance OL. Measure
the lateral deviation OL = d and also the thickness of the
glass slab.

10. Repeat steps 2 to 9 by changing the angle of incidence.

11. Repeat the steps 2 to 10 by using glass slabs of different thickness.

Measure the lateral deviation and the thickness of the glass slab
each time. Also write the values of ∠i and ∠e on the white paper
sheet each time.

12. Record observations in tabular form with proper units. What

inference do you draw from your observations?

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O BSERVATIONS
Least count of the protractor = ... (degree)
Least count of the metre scale = ... mm = ... cm

Table A 10.1 : Measuring the angle of incidence i, angle of emergence

e and lateral deviation d.

Thickness of Lateral devia-

Sl.
the Glass Angle of incidence i Angle of emergence e tion d 10–2 m
No. slab, t 10–2 m

(degree) (radians) (degree) (radians)

1 t1
2 t1
-- --
5 t1
6 t2
-- --
10 t2
11 t3
-- --

R ESULT
1. The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is parallel to the incident
ray direction, but is laterally deviated.
2. The lateral deviation of the emergent ray with respect to the
incident ray is directly proportional to the thickness of the
glass slab.

D ISCUSSION
1. The accuracy in the measurement of angles of incidence i and
emergence e and the lateral deviation d depends on how sharp
the pin tips are, and how careful you are in observing the tips of
the pins to lie along the same straight line. Take special care in
observing the tips of the pins, marking the pin pricks, drawing
the incident, refracted and emergent rays with a sharp pencil,
and measuring the angles i and e, accurately with a protractor.

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S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Examine Table 10.1 and interpret the relationship between ∠i
and ∠e, and between t and d.
2. Plot a graph between lateral deviation d along the y-axis and
thickness t of the glass slab along the x-axis using the observed
values from Table 10.1 keeping the angle of incidence same.
Identify the shape of the graph you have obtained and interpret
it.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. From the observations with the glass slab placed lengthwise, breadthwise
and thicknesswise, find out the refractive index of the material (glass) of the
slab. Discuss your result.

[Hint: Use sin i/sin r = n (refractive index of the material)]

2. Measure the angle i ′ in each case of the above observations. Calculate the

⎛ sin i ′ ⎞
ratio ⎜⎝ sin e ⎟⎠ = n′ . What is the relation between ∠r and ∠i′ and also between

⎛ sin i ⎞
∠i and ∠e ? Compare the ratio n' with ⎜
⎝ sin r ⎟⎠ = n. Remember that the ray

FG is the incident ray on face CD and GH is the refracted ray. Discuss the
relation between n and n′.

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ACTIVITY 11
AIM
To observe polarisation of light using two polaroids.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Two polaroid sheets, source of light/sunlight, card board, a pair of
scissors, white paper, glue.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

A light wave consists of a varying electric field vector E and a varying
magnetic field vector B, which are perpendicular to each other. Each
of these field vectors are also perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
(i) Unpolarised light: The orientation of electric vector is not
confined to one direction only but in all directions randomly,
transverse to the direction of propagation.
(ii) Plane or linear polarisation: Light waves are said to be
plane/linearly polarised if the electric field vector E is restricted
to one direction in a plane normal to the direction of propagation.
(iii) Polaroid: A polaroid consists of long chain molecules aligned in
a particular direction. The electric vectors (associated with the
propagating light wave) along the direction of the aligned
molecules get absorbed. Thus, if an unpolarised light wave is
incident on such a polaroid, then the light wave will get linearly
polarised with the electric vector oscillating along a direction
perpendicular to the aligned molecules. This direction is known
as the pass-axis of the polaroid.
Plastic sheets of synthetic substances are commonly used in
sun glasses, calculator and digital watch.
(iv) Polariser and analyser: When the passage of light through two
polariods is studied, the transmitted fraction of intensity falls
between 1 to 0 as the angle between the axis of their
transmission varies from 0 to 90. The first polaroid next to the
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source being used is called the polariser and the second polaroid
used is called analyser.

PRINCIPLE
Natural light is associated with electric vectors normal to the direction
of propagation and lying in all possible planes passing through the
light beam. However, all these vectors can be resolved along two
mutually perpendicular directions.
P2 P2 P2
Every polaroid has an axis of
transmission such that when
the polaroid is placed normal to
the path of an unpolarised light
beam, the component of electric
vector associated with it and
parallel to the axis of P1 P1 P1
transmission is allowed to pass
through and the transmitted (a)
light is plane polarised. This can
be checked by rotating another
polaroid placed next to the first
polaroid along the beam of light,
(Fig. A11.1) a position comes for
which the transmitted intensity
vanishes. This position
corresponds to the situation
(b)
when the axis of transmission of
the two polaroids are Fig. A 11.1 (a) Passage of light through two
perpendicular to each other. polaroids P2 and P1. The transmitted
When these axes are parallel to fraction falls from 1 to 0 as the angle
each other, the transmitted between them varies from 0° to 90°.
intensity attains a maximum Notice that the light seen through a
value. Hence, the fractional single polaroid P1 does not vary with
intensity ranges between 0 and angle. (b) Behaviour of the electric
1 as the two polaroids in the vector when light passes through
two polaroids. The transmitted
path of light beam are rotated
polarisation is the component
with respect to each other. parallel to the polaroid axis. The
double arrows show the oscillations

P ROCEDURE
of the electric vector.

(a) Making a circular scale for angle measurement

1. Take a card board. Paste a white paper on it. Draw a circle of
radius 10 cm on the white paper.
2. Cut the circle with a pair of scissors.

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3. Mark angular divisions on the circle as shown in

(Fig. A 11.2).
4. Cut a hole at the centre of the circle such that your polariser
fits in the circle. Attach the polaroid in the hole (Fig. A 11.3).
5. Prepare a similar scale for analyser.

(b) Observing Polarisation

1. Take a polaroid piece P1 (also known as polariser) and hold it
in front of your eye and observe light from any source.
2. Take the other polaroid (also known as analyser) and put it
over the first polaroid P1 and observe the light through the
combined system.

O
330 30 330 O O
330
300 30 300 30
300 60

270 60 60
270
270 90
240 90 240 90
240 120
210 120 210 120
210 150 150
180 180 150
180

Fig. A 11.2 Circle with angular division Fig. A 11.3 Circular scale for angle measurement

3. Rotate analyser to get maximum intensity of emerging light.

Note down the difference between scale readings.
4. Now rotate the analyser so that you get zero intensity of
emerging light. Note down the difference between scale
readings.

O BSERVATIONS
1. Difference between scale readings for maximum intensity,
a = ...°.
2. Difference between scale readings for minimum intensity,
b = ... °.
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3. Rotation of analyser from maximum intensity to minimum intensity

a – b = ... °

R ESULT
The angle through which the intensity changes from maximum to
minimum =... °

P RECAUTION
Care should be taken to handle the polaroids carefully so as not to
leave finger prints.

D ISCUSSION
While observing light from some source through a polariser there is
no change in the intensity of light. What can you say about its
polarisation condition? How does an analyser make it possible to
detect polarisation condition?

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. What do you understand by polarisation of light?
2. Can sound waves be polarised?
3. Name the crystals commonly used for polarising light.
4. Name a source of light which directly gives plane polarised light.
5. Study polarisation of sunlight by different methods (polarisation
by scattering, reflection).

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Take a photodiode for light intensity measurement. Connect it properly with

a multimeter so that it glows. By rotating the analyser through different
angles, note down the variations in transmitted intensity. Plot appropriate
graph to verify Malus law, I = I0 cos2θ
where I0 is the intensity of light at θ = 0° and I is the intensity of light at an
angle θ.
2. Give a write up to show how this activity can be used to demonstrate
transverse nature of light?

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ACTIVITY 12
AIM
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Two razor blades, one adhesive tape/cello-tape, source of light (electric
bulb/ laser pencil), a piece of black paper, two glass plats.

P RINCIPLE
When a beam of light passes through a
fine opening (aperture) or around a sharp
obstacle, it bends around corners of the
obstacle/aperture. The light beam
Glass plate
spreads and penetrates into the
geometrical shadow of the obstacle. This
Black paper phenomenon of bending of light around
fine openings/obstacles is called
diffraction and is one of the evidences in
favour of wave nature of light. It arises
because of the interference of light waves
Fig. A 12.1 A fine slit made by using two razor from different points of the same wave
blades, one glass plats and a piece of front. Two razor blades with their sharp
black paper. edges held parallel, quite close to each
other (separation being of the order of wavelength of light λ) form a
fine single slit (Fig. A 12.1). The diffraction pattern due to a single
slit consists of a central bright band, surrounded on both sides by
coloured bands (with electric bulb) and alternate dark and bright
bands (with laser pencil) of decreasing intensity and fringe width.

P ROCEDURE
1. Make a fine, single slit using razor blades. For this purpose, take a
glass plate and fix a black paper on top of it. Cut out a narrow slit in
the central part of the black paper. Place two razor blades, side by
side, quite close to each other over this slit as shown in Fig. A 12.1.

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2. Place a glowing clear electric lamp preferably with a straight

filament (or a laser pencil) at sufficient distance (about 4 to 8m)
behind the fine slit between the two sharp edges of the razor blades.
Observe the lamp through the slit. What do you find?
3. Alternatively, place the slit about 0.5m from the wall and the source
of light at a distance of about 15-20 cm behind the slit. Observe
the light falling on the wall.
4. Repeat the observations of steps 2 and 3 with a laser pencil. Note
the changes you observe.

R ESULT
Light waves incident on very fine apertures (openings) bend arround
corners and exhibit phenomenon of diffraction.

D ISCUSSION
1. The sharpness of diffraction fringes depends mainly on the
extreme fineness of the slit, made using razor blades, keeping
them quite close to each other.
2. Monochromatic light from a laser pencil is preferred over ordinary
electric bulb for obtaining better effect on the screen.
With ordinary light (an electric bulb) not many fringes are
observed clearly, while with a monochromatic source (laser
pencil) a large number of distinct bright and dark fringes are
observed for a reasonable width of the slit.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Hold two razor blades side by side so that nearer sharp edges
are parallel and quite close to each other. The two edges are
often not parallel to each other when held like this. Do you expect
the bands to become wider and/or closely spaced at a point/part
of the slit where the separation of the edges is less? Do you find
bands having some colours? Interpret your observations.
[Hint: The position of all the bands, except the central band,
depends on wavelength and they will show some colours. Use of
a filter for red or blue will make the bands/fringes clearer. You
can easily observe wider bands/fringes by using a red filter
compared to that by using a blue filter.
2. The diffraction pattern is observed for slit widths of the order of
wavelength λ of light used. Observe what happens when the slit
width is few times λ. Interpret the reason.
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ACTIVITY 13
AIM
To study the nature and size of the image formed by (i) a convex
lens (ii) a concave mirror on a screen by using a candle and a
screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror).

(i) To study nature and the size of the image formed by a convex
lens. (for different distances of the candle from the lens)

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A candle, match box, a small candle-stand, a convex lens of small
focal length and known thickness, a screen with a stand, metre scale.

P RINCIPLE
The position, nature and size of the image of an object formed by a
thin convex lens varies with the change in the position of the object
as illustrated in Fig. A 13 (i).1(a) to A 13 (i).1(f) for some specific
positions. It is assumed that both the spherical surfaces of the lens
have same radi of curvature.

(a) Object is at infinity, i.e., u = ∞. A real, inverted and highly diminished

image is formed at the second principal focus, F2 on the other side
of the lens, i.e. v = f, (i) when incident rays of light is parallel to the
principal axis; and (ii) when incident rays of light are not parallel to
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A A

B F2 2F2 F2 2F2 B'

2F1 F1 O B' 2F1 B F1 O

A'
(c)
(d)
A'
A'

A
A

B F2 2F2 F2
2F1 F1 O
O B' 2F1 F1 B O

(e) (f)

Fig. A 13 (i). 1 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) The position, size and nature of the image A′ B′
formed by a thin convex lens LL′ for different positions
of the object AB.

the principal axis, the image is formed on the principal axis and
focal plane respectively.
(b) Object is in between infinity and 2F1, i.e., ∞ > u > 2f. A real, inverted
and diminished image lies in between second principal focus F2
and 2F2 on the other side of the lens, i.e., 2f > v > f.
(c) Object is at 2F1, i.e., u = 2f. A real and inverted image is also
formed at 2F2 on the other side of the lens, i.e., v = 2f. The size of
the image is equal to the size of object.
(d) Object is in between 2F1 and first principal focus F1, i.e.,
2f > u > f. A real, inverted and enlarged image is formed in between
2F2 and infinity on the other side of the lens, i.e., 2f < v < ∞ .
(e) Object is at the first principal focus, i.e., u = f. A highly enlarged,
real and inverted image is formed at infinity on the other side of
the lens, i.e, v = ∞.
(f) Object is in between the principal focus and the optical centre O
of the lens, i.e., f > u > 0. An enlarged, virtual and erect image is
formed on the same side of the object.

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P ROCEDURE
1. Obtain an approximate value of the focal length of the convex lens
by focussing the image of a distant object. It can be found by
obtaining a sharp image of Sun or tree on a plain wall, on the
other side of the lens and measuring the distance between the
lens and the wall with a scale. This distance is approximate value
of the focal length, f of the convex lens.
Note: Do not look at the Sun through the lens to see its image as it
will hurt your eyes.
2. Fix a metre scale along the edge (lengthwise) of the table with a
clamp or a cellotape.
3. Fix lens LL′ in a lens stand and place it approximately in the middle
of the metre scale such that its principal axis is horizontal and
parallel to the metre scale. In this position the lens would
lie in a plane perpendicular to the table.

4. Mount a lighted candle vertically on a small

candlestand. Place this candlestand on the
left hand side of the lens. Adjust the upright
such that the tip of the lighted candle lies
on the principal axis of the lens. In this
situation, the height of the tip of the flame
of lighted candle becomes equal to the
height of the optical centre of the lens.
Fig. A 13 (i). 2 Real images of a lighted candle
formed by a thin convex lens.

5. Shift the candlestand (from left side of the lens) to a point slightly
away from 2F1 ( i.e., to a distance slightly more than 2f from the
point O, where f is the focal length of the lens as determined in
step 1). According to Fig. A13 (i).1(b), the image of candle will be
formed at a position closer to the second principal focus F2 on the
right hand side of the lens.
6. Place a vertically mounted screen on the right hand side of the
lens. Adjust its height such that most of its portion lies above the
principal axis of the lens (Fig. A 13 (i)2).
7. Shift the position of the screen near to the second principal focus
F2 on the metre scale functioning as an optical bench.
8. Make final adjustments to get a sharp image of the lighted candle
on the screen. Note the nature of the image.
9. Measure the height of the flame of the lighted candle using a small
plane mirror strip with a graph paper strip pasted on it. Also
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measure the height of the image of the flame being formed on the
screen. For this, fix a small graph paper on the screen. Alternatively,
fix a white paper on the screen and mark the positions of the top
and bottom of the image and determine the height of the image
using a metre scale.
10. Shift the lighted candle towards the lens by a small distance (say
by 5 cm or 3 cm). Repeat steps (8) and (9) and record observations.
In this manner take at least six sets of observations.

O
BSERVATIONS

1. Rough focal length of the convex lens = ...cm

Table A 13 (i) 1 : Position, size and nature of image with different

positions of object

Position Position Size Position Size of Nature of Relative size

Sl.
of of of flame of image on the image image of image
No.
lens (cm) candle (cm) (cm) screen (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
--
6

R
ESULT
1. As the object moves towards the focus of the lens the size of the
image increases and it moves away from the focus. In all these
positions image is real and inverted and is formed on the other
side of the lens.
2. When the object is brought too close to the lens, the image on the
other side is not seen.
3. When the object is at a distance less than the focal length, the
image formed is virtual, enlarged and erect. It is formed on the
same side of the lens as that of the object.

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P RECAUTIONS
1. This experiment should be performed at a shaded place where no
direct light reaches (preferably in a dark room) otherwise the
images may not be distinctly visible.
2. While estimating the rough value of focal length f of the lens by
focusing the Sun, do not look at the image directly as it may hurt
your eyes.
3. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.
4. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image
formed will not be distinct.
5. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the
image formed on the screen.

D ISCUSSION
1. If the object is placed between the optical centre and focus, the
image so formed will be virtual in nature, you will not get this
image on the screen. Draw the ray diagram.
2. When the candle is placed near the focus, the image is formed at
infinity. It may go beyond the end of the table.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How does the size of your image formed by a convex lens vary as
you move from the other end of the table towards the lens?
2. Where should the object be placed to get a virtual and erect image
of the object?
3. What should be the position of the object to get an image on the
same side of the lens as the object?
4. How does the position of the image formed by a convex lens vary
as you move along the principal axis of the lens from infinity to its
focus?
5. What will be the position of the object to get a real image having
the same size as the object?

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AIM
(ii) To study the nature and size of the image formed by a
concave mirror on a screen by using a candle and a screen
(for different distances of the candle from the mirror).

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench, candle, match box, a small candlestand, concave
mirror of nearly 25 cm focal length, a screen, three uprights (with
clamps), metre scale, adhesive tape and spirit level.

P RINCIPLE
The position, nature and size of the image of an object formed by a
concave mirror changes with the position of the object. Figs. A13(ii).
1 (a) to (f), show the image formation by placing the object at different
positions in front of the mirror in different situations.
(a) Object is at infinity, i.e., u = ∞ . A real, inverted and highly
diminished image is formed at the principal focus, i.e., v = f.
(b) Object is in between infinity and the centre of curvature, i.e.,
∞ > u > 2f. A real, inverted and diminished image lies in
between C, the centre of curvature and principal focus, F,
i.e., f < v < 2f.
(c) Object is at centre of curvature, i.e., u = 2f. A real and inverted
image is formed at the centre of curvature, i.e., v = 2f. The size of
the image is equal to the size of object.

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(virtual image cannot

be obtained on a screen)

Fig. A 13 (ii).1 (a),(b),(c),(d),(e),(f) Formation of images by a concave mirror

(d) Object is in between the centre of curvature and principal

focus, i.e., 2f > u > f. Real, inverted and enlarged image is
formed in between C, the centre of curvature and infinity,
i.e., 2f < v < ∞ .
(e) Object is at the principal focus F, i.e., u = f. A highly enlarged,
real and inverted image is formed at infinity, v = ∞ .
(f) Object is in between the principal focus F and pole of the mirror
P, i.e., f > u > 0. An enlarged, virtual and erect image is formed
behind the mirror.
A real image (always inverted) is the one through which the rays
of light actually pass after reflection from concave mirror and
which can be formed on a screen. A virtual image (always erect)
is the one through which the rays do not actually pass, although
they appear to come from it. Thus, the images of an object (e.g.,
a burning candle) formed for situations illustrated in Figs. A13
(ii).1 (a) to (d) can be focussed on a screen. The size of image
may be determined by using a graph paper fixed on the screen.

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P
ROCEDURE
1. Obtain an approximate value of the focal length of the concave
mirror by focusing the image of a distant object. It can be found
by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a tree on a plane wall,
or on a sheet of paper and measuring the distance between the
mirror and the image with a scale. This distance is an approximate
value of the focal length, f of the concave mirror. Twice of this
focal length is an approximate value of the radius of curvature
of the mirror.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid platform and using the spirit
level make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided
at the base of the bench.
3. Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and fix it near one
end of the optical bench such that its principal axis is
horizontal and parallel to the optical bench. In this position
the mirror would lie in a plane perpendicular to the principal
axis of the mirror.
4. Mount a lighted candle vertically on a small candlestand and
fix it on an upright. Place this upright near the reflecting
surface of the mirror. Adjust the upright so that the height of
the bottom of the candle (or top of the candlestand) becomes
equal to the height of the pole P of the mirror from the base of
the optical bench. In this situation the bottom of the candle
(or the top of the candlestand) would lie on the principal axis
of the mirror.
5. Mount the screen on another upright and adjust the height of
its top equal to the height of pole P from the base of the optical
bench. Thus, the position of the screen lies below the principal
axis of the mirror.

Note: In situations where ∞ > u > R; R > v > f, the object is kept above
the principal axis and screen is kept below the principal axis as shown
in Fig. A 13 (ii).2(a).

6. Shift the candle upright to another end of the optical bench so

that the distance of the candle from the mirror is much larger
than the focal length of the concave mirror. Thus, the position of
the candle in front of the mirror can be considered to be distant,
i.e., u >> R, and the image of the candle will be formed at a
position much closer to the principal focus F of the mirror [Fig.
A13 (ii).1 (a)] or v
f.
7. Read the positions of the mirror, screen and candle uprights on
the optical bench metre scale and record the readings in the
observation table.
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8. Measure height of the lighted candle using the metre scale. Also
measure the height of the image formed on screen as done in
step 9 of activity 13 (i).
9. Bring the lighted candle close to the centre of curvature C
(distance PC = 2 f ). Now the image will be formed in between the
points C and F, close to 2f. Adjust the position of the screen to
get a sharp image [Fig. A 13 (ii). 1(b)].

u M v M

P P
C F C F
f f

v u
M′ M′
2f 2f
(a) (b)

Fig. A 13 (ii). 2 Real images of a lighted candle formed by a concave mirror (a) u > v; and (b) u < v.

10. Place the candle at C. Shift the position of the screen near to the
principal focus F on the optical bench. Use the rough estimated
value of the focal length f of the mirror as determined in Step 1.
Make final adjustments to get a sharp image of the lighted candle
on the screen. Note the nature of the image.
11. Repeat steps 7 and 8 and record the observations and also note
the nature of image formed.
12. Shift the lighted candle such that R > u > f. Now the
image will be formed in between the point C and infinity,
i.e., ∞ > v > R [Fig. A13(ii).1(d)]. Now since u < v, the candle
(object) is placed below the principal axis while the screen
is placed above the principal axis, i.e. the top of candle
and bottom of the screen lie on principal axis as shown in [Fig.
A13 (ii). 2 (b)].

13. Repeat above steps by placing the candle at F and then between
F and P. Record your observations in Table A 13 (ii).1.

Note: When candle is placed at the centre of curvature C (i.e., u = R),

this method may not be useful for locating the position of image as it
is difficult to mount both the screen and candle at the same place on
the optical bench.
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O
BSERVATIONS
Approximate focal length of the concave mirror =...cm
Table A 13 (ii).1: Nature, size and position of image with different
positions of object

Position Position Size Position Size of Nature of Relative size

Sl.
of of of flame of image on the image image of image
No.
mirror (cm) candle (cm) (cm) screen (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
--
6

R ESULT
Observation on the nature, size and position of image shows that
1. The image moves away from the focus as the object is moved
towards the focus.
2. The size of the image increases as it moves away from the mirror.
3. If the object is placed between infinity and F the image formed by
a concave mirror is real and inverted.
4. If the object is placed between F and pole, the image is formed
behind the mirror and it is virtual, erect and enlarged.

P
RECAUTIONS
1. This experiment should be performed at a shaded place where
no direct light reaches (preferably in a dark room) otherwise the
images may not be distinctly visible.
2. While estimating the rough value of focal length f of the mirror
by focusing the Sun, do not look at the Sun through the mirror
as it may hurt your eyes.
3. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.
4. The aperture of mirror should be small otherwise the image
formed will not be distinct.
5. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the
image being formed on the screen.
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6. An error may arise in the observations if the top of optical bench

is not horizontal.
7. The general instructions to be followed in all optical bench
experiments must be taken care of.
8. The concave mirror should be front-coated. Otherwise multiple
reflections coming from the reflecting surface of the mirror will
confuse the accurate position of the image.

D ISCUSSION
1. You cannot exactly observe the characteristics of the image
formed when the object is between focus and pole of the mirror.
You can only check by moving the screen in front of it that the
image is not formed in front of the mirror. By drawing ray
diagram it can be seen that the virtual image is formed behind
the mirror.
2. The inferences corresponding to u= ∞ and u=f also be elicited by
the trends you observe and drawing ray diagrams, because, the
object and image (respectively) are situated outside the range of
optical bench.
3. The situation corresponding to u= 2f, may also be difficult to locate
because you have to place the candle and the screen at the same
position.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. The focal length of a concave mirror is 20 cm, what is its radius of
curvature?
2. When an object is placed at 30 cm in front of a concave mirror, image
of the same size is formed. What is the focal length of the mirror?
3. Focal length of a concave mirror is 30 cm. What will be the
characteristics of the image formed, when the object is placed at a
distance of 40 cm in front of the mirror?
4. What is the effect on the size and intensity of the image formed
when the lower half of the concave mirror is painted black?
5. Is it possible to get a virtual image on the screen? If so, how?
6. In a similar experiment using lenses, the images look a little
coloured, unlike this experiment. What is the reason for this?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

Using a plane mirror and a single pin determine the focal length of a given
convex lens.
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ACTIVITY 14
AIM
To obtain a lens combination with specified focal length by using two
lenses from a given set of lenses.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A set of convex lenses of known powers, optical bench with uprights
and screen, a source of light providing a parallel beam of light (a
collimator).

P RINCIPLE
A parallel beam of light
parallel to principal axis Combination of Screen
lenses L1 and L2
after refraction through a Collimator Slit
lens either focus at a point
or appears to diverge from
a point on the principal
axis called the focus point.
The distance from the
optical centre to the focal
point is called the focal F
length.
Power of lens
The ability of a lens to
converge or diverge the Fig. A 14.1 (a) Focal length of combination of lenses
rays passing through it
is called the power of the lens
1
Power =
focal length ( f )

Its SI unit is Dioptre. Power of a convex lens is taken as positive. Two

or more lenses, placed in contact together to have a common principal
axis, form a lens combination. If f1, f 2, ... fn be the focal length of
individual lens and F be the focal length of the combination, then
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1 1 1 1
= + + ... + or
F f1 f 2 fn

P = P 1 + P 2 + ... + P n , where P is the power of the lens

combination and P 1, P2, ... P n are the powers of the individual
lenses. Fig. A 14.1(a).

P ROCEDURE
1. Calculate the power of the combination of two lenses corresponding
to the required focal length.
2. Select a lens from the given set of lenses whose power is smaller
than that of the combination of lenses to be prepared, (if only convex
lenses are provided).
3. Calculate the power of unknown convex lens to be kept in contact
with the lens of known focal length to obtain a combination of
lenses of desired focal length. Select the lens whose power is close
to the calculated power from the given set of lenses.
4. Set up the optical bench on a horizontal
table. Adjust the collimator to direct
parallel beam of light along the optical
bench. In case collimator is not available,
a plane mirror may be used to direct
sunlight along the optical bench [Fig. A
14.1 (b)] and illuminate a slit with it.

5. Place the two lenses on the uprights such

that they are in contact with each other.
An upright that can hold two lenses in
Fig. A 14.1 (b) Focussing parallel beam of light on
combination of lenses
contact may also be used or the same
may be improvised by fixing the lenses
on grooves carved on a thermocole sheet.
6. Direct a parallel beam of light on the combination of lenses and
obtain a sharply focussed image of the source of light on a screen
placed on the other side of the lenses. This can be done by
adjusting the distance between the combination of lenses and
screen.
7. Measure the distance of the screen from both the lenses and record
it in a table.
8. Repeat the activity atleast three times by changing the position of
the lens combination on the optical bench. Record your
observations in each case.

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O BSERVATIONS
Focal length of lens L1 = f1
Focal length of lens L2 = f2
1 1 1
Calculated focal length of lens combination F = f + f
1 2

Least count of the scale of the optical bench = ...mm.

Table A 14.1: Focal length of combination of lenses

Mean distance of
screen from lens
Sl. Distance of first lens Distance of second lens
combination
No. from the screen d1 (cm) from the screen d2 (cm)
d1 + d 2
= F (cm)
2

1
2
3

C ALCULATIONS
The mean distance of the screen from the lens combination is a
measure of its focal length. Take average of all readings as the focal
length of the combination determined by the experiment.

R ESULT
Measured value of focal length of lens combination =...cm
Difference between measured value of focal length and the calculated
focal length =...cm
The difference between the two could be due to experimental error.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. Thickness of the lenses may cause an error.
2. The peripheral region of the lenses are not in contact.
3. Spherical aberration of the lenses may cause an error in locating
the position of the sharp image, i.e., the exact focal length.
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D ISCUSSION
1. A source rendering parallel beam of light may be obtained by
placing a torch bulb at the focus of a convex lens of known focal
length.
2. You can make lens combinations using a pair of lenses separated
by a distance d and adjusting the separation between them. You
may obtain the combination of desired focal length using the
formula,

1 1 1 d
= + −
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2

What is the range of focal lengths you may obtain this way?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is put in contact with a concave
lens of focal length 10 cm. What will be the effective focal length
of the combination?
2. If a convex lens is dipped completely in water, what will be the
effect on its focal length?
3. If two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are placed distance d apart,
1 1 1
is the formula = + still valid? If not, give the modified
F f1 f 2
formula. Will the focal length of the combination be (i) < F (ii) > F?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. A person having refractive error is able to see distant objects clearly but is
not able to read a book. We find that she can read the book clearly on using
a combination of lenses of focal lengths 2, 2/3m and -1m, available in the
laboratory. What should be the power of the lens to be prescribed for such
a person?

2. Select a pair of lenses whose combination (i) will act as a converging lens
(ii) will not act as a converging lens.

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