Application Note AN-TC11 Rev.

Thermistor Basics

May, 2013
Page 1

WHAT IS A THERMISTOR?
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose Thermistors are easy to use, inexpensive, sturdy, and
resistance is dependent on temperature. The term is a respond predictably to changes in temperature. While they
combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic do not work well with excessively hot or cold temperatures,
oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and they are the sensor of choice for applications that measure
then encapsulated with an impermeable material such as temperature at a desired base point. They are ideal when
epoxy or glass. very precise temperatures are required.

There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Some of the most common uses of thermistors are in
Coefficient (NTC) and Positive Temperature Coefficient digital thermometers, in cars to measure oil and coolant
(PTC). With an NTC thermistor, when the temperature temperatures, and in household appliances such as ovens
increases, resistance decreases. Conversely, when and refrigerators, but they are also found in almost any
temperature decreases, resistance increases. This type of application that requires heating or cooling protection circuits
thermistor is used the most. for safe operation. For more sophisticated applications, such
as laser stabilization detectors, optical blocks, and charge
A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When temperature coupled devices, the thermistor is built in. For example,
increases, the resistance increases, and when temperature a 10 kΩ thermistor is the standard that is built into laser
decreases, resistance decreases. This type of thermistor is packages.
generally used as a fuse.

Typically, a thermistor achieves high precision within a

limited temperature range of about 50ºC around the target
temperature. This range is dependent on the base resistance.

The thermistor symbols are:

US & Japan Europe

Figure 1. Thermistor Symbols

The arrow by the T signifies that the resistance is variable

based on temperature. The direction of the arrow or bar is
not significant.

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 Application Note AN-TC11 Rev. A
Page 2

HOW DOES THE THERMISTOR “READ” WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A

TEMPERATURE? THERMISTOR AND OTHER SENSORS?
A thermistor does not actually “read” anything, instead In addition to thermistors, several other types of temperature
the resistance of a thermistor changes with temperature. sensors are used. The most common are Resistance
How much the resistance changes depends on the type of Temperature Detectors (RTD) and integrated circuits (IC),
material used in the thermistor. such as the LM335 and AD590 types. Which sensor works
best for a particular use is based on many factors. Table 1
Unlike other sensors, thermistors are nonlinear, meaning gives a brief comparison of the benefits and drawbacks of
the points on a graph representing the relationship between each.
resistance and temperature will not form a straight line. The
location of the line and how much it changes is determined
by the construction of the thermistor. A typical thermistor Table 1. Sensor Comparison
graph looks like this: Thermistor RTD LM335 AD592
Temp Range Within -260ºC to -40ºC to -20ºC to
~50ºC of a +850ºC +100ºC +105ºC
given center
temperature
Relative Cost Very Most Moderately Moderately
inexpensive expensive expensive expensive
Time Constant 6 to 14 1 to 7 1 to 3 2 to 60
seconds seconds seconds seconds
Stability Very stable, ~0.05ºC ~0.01ºC ~0.01ºC
~0.0009ºC
Sensitivity High Low Low Low

Advantages • Durable • Best • Moderately • Moderately

• Long response expensive expensive
lasting time • Linear • Linear
• Highly • Linear output output
sensitive output
• Small size • Widest
• Lowest operating
cost temp
• Best for range
measuring • Best for
single point measuring
temp a range of
temp
Figure 2. Resistance vs. Temperature Graph
Disadvantages • Nonlinear • Expensive • Limited • Slowest
output • Low temp range response
• Limited sensitivity • Low time
temp range sensitivity • Limited
• Slow • Large size temp
How the change in resistance is converted into measurable response range
time • Low
data will be covered later in this paper. sensitivity
• Large size

Temperature Range: The approximate overall range of

temperatures in which a sensor type can be used. Within
a given temperature range, some sensors work better than
others.

Relative Cost: Relative cost as these sensors are compared

to one another. For example, thermistors are inexpensive in
relation to RTDs, partly because the material of choice for
RTDs is platinum.

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 Application Note AN-TC11 Rev. A
Page 3

Time Constant: Approximate time required to change

HOW DOES A THERMISTOR WORK IN A
from one temperature value to another. This is the time,
in seconds, that a thermistor takes to reach 63.2% of the CONTROLLED SYSTEM?
temperature difference from the initial reading to the final The main use of a thermistor is to measure the temperature
one. of a device. In a temperature controlled system, the
thermistor is a small but important piece of a larger system.
Stability: The ability of a controller to maintain a constant A temperature controller monitors the temperature of the
temperature based on the sensor’s temperature feedback. thermistor. It then tells a heater or cooler when to turn on or
off to maintain the temperature of the sensor.
Sensitivity: The degree of response to a change in
temperature. In Figure 4, illustrating an example system, there are
three main components used to regulate the temperature
of a device: the temperature sensor, the temperature
controller, and the Peltier device (labeled here as a TEC, or
thermoelectric cooler). The sensor head is attached to the
WHICH THERMISTOR SHAPES ARE cooling plate that needs to maintain a specific temperature
AVAILABLE? to cool the device, and the wires are attached to the
temperature controller. The temperature controller is also
Thermistors come in a variety of shapes—disk, chip, bead, or electronically connected to the Peltier device, which heats
rod, and can be surface mounted or embedded in a system. and cools the target device. The heatsink is attached to the
They can be encapsulated in epoxy resin, glass, baked-on Peltier device to help with heat dissipation.
phenolic, or painted. The best shape often depends on what
material is being monitored, such as a solid, liquid, or gas.

For example, a bead thermistor is ideal for embedding into

a device, while a rod, disk, or cylindrical head are best for
optical surfaces. A thermistor chip is normally mounted on a COOLER HEATSINK
printed circuit board (PCB). There are many, many different CURRENT
TEMPERATURE TEC
shapes of thermistors and some examples are: COOLING PLATE
CONTROLLER
TEMPERATURE EMBEDDED UNIT TO BE COOLED
TEMPERATURE
FEEDBACK SENSOR

Figure 4. Temperature Control System

The job of the temperature sensor is to send the temperature

feedback to the temperature controller. The sensor has a
small amount of current running through it, called bias current,
which is sent by the temperature controller. The controller
can’t read resistance, so it must convert resistance changes
to voltage changes by using a current source to apply a bias
Figure 3. Thermistor Types
current across the thermistor to produce a control voltage.
Choose a shape that allows maximum surface contact
The temperature controller is the brains of this operation. It
with the device whose temperature is being monitored.
takes the sensor information, compares it to what the unit
Regardless of the type of thermistor, the connection to the
to be cooled needs (called the setpoint), and adjusts the
monitored device must be made using a highly thermally
current through the Peltier device to change the temperature
conductive paste or epoxy glue. It is usually important that
to match the setpoint.
this paste or glue is not electrically conductive.

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 Application Note AN-TC11 Rev. A
Page 4

The location of the thermistor in the system affects both the Once the placement of the sensor has been chosen, then
stability and the accuracy of the control system. For best the rest of the system needs to be configured. This includes
stability, the thermistor needs to be placed as close to the determining the base thermistor resistance, the bias current
thermoelectric or resistive heater as possible. For best for the sensor, and the setpoint temperature of the load on
accuracy, the thermistor needs to be located close to the the temperature controller.
device requiring temperature control. Ideally, the thermistor
is embedded in the device, but it can also be attached
using thermally conductive paste or glue. Even if a device
is embedded, air gaps should be eliminated using thermal WHICH THERMISTOR RESISTANCE AND
paste or glue.
BIAS CURRENT SHOULD BE USED?
Figure 5 show two thermistors, one attached directly to
the device and one remote, or distant from the device. If Thermistors are categorized by the amount of resistance
the sensor is too far away from the device, thermal lag measured at ambient room temperature, which is considered
time significantly reduces the accuracy of the temperature 25ºC. The device whose temperature needs to be maintained
measurement, while placing the thermistor too far from the has certain technical specifications for optimum use, as
Peltier device reduces the stability. determined by the manufacturer. These must be identified
before selecting a sensor. Therefore, it is important to know
Thermistor Mounted the following:
directly on the device
• What are the maximum and minimum temperatures for
Load
the device?
Thermistors are ideal when measuring a single point
temperature that is within 50ºC of ambient. If the
temperatures are excessively high or low, a thermistor will
Heatsink not work. While there are exceptions, most thermistors
Remote work best in the range between -55ºC and +114ºC.
Thermistor Thermoelectric Cooler
Since thermistors are nonlinear, meaning the temperature
Figure 5. Thermistor Placement to resistance values plot on a graph as a curve rather
than a straight line, very high or very low temperatures
Figure 6 illustrates the difference in temperature readings do not get recorded correctly. For example, very small
taken by both thermistors. The thermistor attached to the changes in very high temperatures will record negligible
device reacted quickly to the change in thermal load and resistance changes, which won’t translate into accurate
recorded accurate temperatures. The remote thermistor voltage changes.
also reacted but not quite as quickly. More importantly,
the readings are off by a little more than half a degree. • What is the optimum thermistor range?
This difference can be very significant when accurate Depending on the bias current from the controller, each
temperatures are required. thermistor has an optimum useful range, meaning the
temperature range where small changes in temperature
Control Thermistor
Control Thermistoron
onDUC
Device are accurately recorded.
21.5
Remote Thermistor
Remote Thermistor

21.0
Table 2, on the following page, shows the most effective
temperature ranges for Wavelength thermistors at the
Temperature (ºC)

20.5 two most common bias currents.

20.0

19.5

19.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time (min)

Figure 6. Temperature Response based on

Thermistor Placement
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 Application Note AN-TC11 Rev. A
Page 5

Table 2. Thermistor Performance Range The controller produces a bias current to convert the
thermistor resistance to a measurable voltage. The controller
will only accept a certain range of voltage. For example, if a
Thermistor Selection Guide controller range is 0 to 5 V, the thermistor voltage needs
to be no lower than 0.25 V so that low end electrical noise
MODEL R @ 25°C 10 μA RANGE 100 ȝA RANGE does not interfere with the reading, and not higher than 5 V
in order to be read.
TCS605 5 kŸ -55 to -2°C -20 to +33°C

TCS610 10 kŸ -45 to +13°C -8 to +50°C Assume the use of the above controller and a 100 kΩ
thermistor, such as Wavelength’s TCS651, and the
TCS10K5 10 kŸ -45 to +13°C -8 to +50°C temperature the device needs to maintain is 20ºC. According
to the TCS651 datasheet, the resistance is 126700 Ω at 20ºC.
TCS620 20 kŸ -35 to +28°C +6 to +69°C
To determine if the thermistor can work with the controller,
TCS650 50 kŸ -18 to +49°C +25 to +92°C we need to know the usable range of bias currents. Using
Ohm’s Law to solve for IBIAS, we know the following:
TCS651 100 kŸ -6 to +67°C +41 to +114°C
V / R = IBIAS

It is best to choose a thermistor where the setpoint 0.25 / 126700 = 2 μA is the lowest end of the range
temperature is in the middle of the range. The sensitivity 5.0 / 126700 = 39.5 μA is the highest end
of the thermistor is dependent on the temperature. For
example, a thermistor may be more sensitive at cooler Yes, this thermistor will work, if the temperature controller
temperatures than at warmer temperatures, as is the bias current can be set between 2 μA and 39.5 μA.
case with Wavelength’s TCS10K5 10 kΩ thermistor.
With the TCS10K5, the sensitivity is 162 mV per degree When selecting a thermistor and bias current, it is best to
Celsius between 0ºC and 1ºC, and it is 43 mV / °C choose one where the voltage developed is in the middle
between 25ºC and 26ºC, and 14 mV / °C between 49ºC of the range. The controller feedback input needs to be in
and 50ºC. voltage, which is derived from the thermistor resistance.

• What are the upper and lower voltage limits of the sensor Since people relate to temperature most easily, the
input of the temperature controller? resistance often needs to be changed to temperature. The
The voltage limits of the sensor feedback to a temperature most accurate model used to convert thermistor resistance
controller are specified by the manufacturer. The ideal to temperature is called the Steinhart-Hart equation.
is to select a thermistor and bias current combination
that produces a voltage inside the range allowed by the
temperature controller.

Voltage is related to resistance by Ohm’s Law. This equation

is used to determine what bias current is needed. Ohm’s
Law states that the current through a conductor between
two points is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the two points and, for this bias current, is written as:

V = IBIAS x R, where

V is voltage, in Volts (V)

IBIAS is the current, in Amperes or Amps (A)
IBIAS means the current is fixed
R is resistance, in Ohms (Ω)

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 Application Note AN-TC11 Rev. A
Page 6

WHAT IS THE STEINHART-HART EQUATION? WHO ARE STEINHART AND HART?

The Steinhart-Hart equation is a model that was developed John S. Steinhart and Stanley R. Hart first developed and
at a time when computers were not ubiquitous and most published the Steinhart-Hart equation in a paper called
mathematical calculations were done using slide rules and “Calibration curves for thermistors” in 1968, when they were
other mathematical aids, such as transcendental function researchers at Carnegie Institution of Washington. Steinhart
tables. The equation was developed as a simple method for went on to become Professor of Geology and Geophysics,
modeling thermistor temperatures easily and more precisely. and Marine Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison
and Stanley R. Hart became a Senior Scientist at Woods
The Steinhart-Hart equation is: Hole Oceanographic Institution.
1/T = A + B(lnR) + C(lnR)2 + D(lnR)3 + E(lnR)4...

Where:
T is temperature, in Kelvins (K, Kelvin = Celsius + 273.15)
R is resistance at T, in Ohms (Ω) CONCLUSION
A, B, C, D, and E are the Steinhart-Hart coefficients that vary
depending on the type of thermistor used and the range of Thermistors are temperature-dependent resistors, changing
temperature being detected. resistance with changes in temperature. They are very
ln is Natural Log, or Log to the Napierian base 2.71828 sensitive and react to very small changes in temperature.
They are best used when a specific temperature needs to be
The terms can go on infinitely but, because the error is so maintained, and when monitoring temperatures within 50ºC
small, the equation is truncated after the cubed term and the of ambient.
squared term is eliminated, so the standard Steinhart-Hart
equation used is this: Thermistors, as part of a temperature control system, are
the best way to measure and control heating and cooling of
1/T = A + B(lnR) + C(lnR)3 a Peltier device. Their ability to adjust in minute increments
allows the greatest overall system stability. Thermistors can
One of the pleasures of computer programs is that equations be embedded in or surface-mounted on the device needing
that would have taken days, if not weeks, to solve are done temperature monitoring. Depending on type, they can
in moments. Type “Steinhart-Hart equation calculator” in any measure liquids, gases, or solids.
search engine and pages of links to online calculators are
returned.

HOW IS THE STEINHART-HART EQUATION

USED?
This equation calculates with greater precision the actual
resistance of a thermistor as a function of temperature. The
more narrow the temperature range, the more accurate the
resistance calculation will be. Most thermistor manufacturers
provide the A, B, and C coefficients for a typical temperature
range.

REVISION HISTORY
REV DATE NOTES
A 10-May-13 Initial Release

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