Power Systems I & II

Exercises

Dr Petros Aristidou
Sustainable Power Systems Lab
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Computer Engineering & Informatics
https: // sps. cut. ac. cy

Last updated: April 1, 2020

Contents

Preface 1

1 Basics of electrical engineering 3

1.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Sinusoidal quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Representation of sinusoidal quantities as phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Impedance of R, L and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Power and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 Instantaneous power at R, L and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.2 AC power at R, L and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 AC power circuits 15
2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Magnetic circuits and power transformers 17

3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Per-unit system 19
4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Transmission lines 21
5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6 Power system operation 23

6.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

7 Rotating machines 26
7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8 Power flow analysis 29

9 Short-circuit analysis 30

10 Unbalanced operation 31

11 FACTS devices 32

12 Answers to exercises 33

1
Preface

This selection of exercises has been selected, created, or curated to support the courses Power
Systems I and II taught at the Cyprus University of Technology. If you find any mistakes or
issues with the material, please contact me.

2
Chapter 1

Basics of electrical engineering

In this introductory chapter we want to refresh some basics of electrical engineering. We repeat
above all important terms and tools from AC engineering: The representation of alternating
quantities through complex numbers, definitions of impedances in AC circuits and the concepts
of power and energy.

1.1 Complex Numbers

y z

x Â
-j

-y z*

Figure 1.1: Geometric representation of a complex number z and its conjugate z ∗ .

We look at the interpretation of a complex number represented in figure 1.1. With the real
part x on the x-coordinate and the imaginary part y on the y-coordinate we obtain a vector

z = x + jy = |z|∠ϕ (1.1)

where j is the imaginary unit:1

j 2 = −1 (1.2)
The operators < and = form the real and imaginary part of their argument:

< (z) = x (1.3a)

= (z) = y (1.3b)

A complex number can be represented either by orthogonal coordinates (real part x and imag-
inary part y) or by polar coordinates (absolute value z = |z| and phase ϕ). A complex number
1
√
The definition j = −1 can lead to a mathematical paradox when using the square root function ”incau-
tiously”.

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orthogonal coordinates polar coordinates

x = z cos ϕ, y = z sin ϕ
PSfrag replacements
z = x + jy z = z∠ϕ

p
z= x2 + y 2 , ϕ = arctan xy

Figure 1.2: Conversion between orthogonal and polar coordinates.

z = z∠ϕ given in polar coordinates can be converted to orthogonal coordinates by means of the
following relationships:

x = z cos ϕ (1.4a)
y = z sin ϕ (1.4b)

The inverse operation, i.e. the conversion of a number z = x+jy given in orthogonal coordinates
to polar coordinates is done as follows:
p
z = |z| = x2 + y 2 (1.5)

= (z) y
ϕ = arctan = arctan (1.6)
< (z) x
The conversions between the two coordinate planes are summarized in figure 1.2.
By means of the Eulerian relationship

ejϕ = cos ϕ + j sin ϕ (1.7)

complex numbers can be represented in exponential notation:

z = x + jy = zejϕ (1.8)

This notation can be very beneficial for certain applications. Please note that the product of
two exponential numbers is ea eb = ea+b . Furthermore the following relationship holds true for
the reciprocal value of an exponential number: 1/ea = e−a .
If one replaces the imaginary part of a complex number z by its negative value, one obtains
the conjugate complex number for z:

z ∗ = x − jy = z∠ − ϕ = ze−jϕ (1.9)

The conjugation of a complex number can be geometrically interpreted as reflection in the real
axis (see figure 1.1).
In the following, we want to repeat the four basic arithmetic operations for two complex
numbers z 1 = x1 + jy1 and z 2 = x2 + jy2 .

ˆ Addition/subtraction: To sum two complex numbers, we add up their real and imaginary
part, respectively:

z 1 ± z 2 = (x1 + jy1 ) ± (x2 + jy2 ) = x1 ± x2 + j (y1 ± y2 ) (1.10)

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x(t)

Ù
f X
T

0 wt

b angular phase shift φ and cycle duration

Figure 1.3: Sinusoidal oscillation with amplitude X,
T = 2π/ω.

ˆ Multiplication: To calculate the product of two complex numbers, we multiply their

absolute values and add up their phase angles:
z 1 · z 2 = |z 1 | · |z 2 | · ej(ϕ1 +ϕ2 ) = z1 z2 ∠ (ϕ1 + ϕ2 ) (1.11)

ˆ Division: The quotient of two complex numbers results from the quotient of the absolute
values and the difference of the phase angles:
z1 |z | z1
= 1 · ej(ϕ1 −ϕ2 ) = ∠ (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) (1.12)
z2 |z 2 | z2

One can, of course, carry out each of these operations with a different representation (orthogo-
nal/polar coordinates), but the calculations are in general simpler in the described forms.

1.2 Sinusoidal quantities

Sinusoidal AC quantities can be defined as sine or cosine quantities. In principle it does not
matter which definition one chooses. Depending on the calculations to be carried out, one or
the other form can lead to more calculation efforts. All properties that will be discussed in the
following hold true for both sine and cosine functions.

1.2.1 Definitions
Figure 1.3 shows a symmetrical, sinusoidal oscillation
b cos(ωt + φ)
x(t) = X (1.13)
The maximum value of the oscillation X b is called amplitude. The phase angle φ defines the
shift of the phase with respect to the reference angle (in this case 0°); T corresponds to the
duration of a cycle, also called the period of the oscillation. We can now calculate the following
quantities:
ˆ Frequency f , angular frequency ω:
1 2π
f= , ω = 2πf = (1.14)
T T
The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 s−1 ; the unit of the angular frequency
is strictly speaking s−1 , too. However, it is often given in radians per second (rad/s).

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ˆ Average over time X: Z T

1
X= x(t)dt (1.15)
T 0

For symmetrical sinusoidal oscillations, we have X = 0.

ˆ Effective value (root mean square value) X: The root mean square (RMS) value of an AC
current is defined as that value of a DC current which would generate the same amount
of heat in an ohmic resistance. In general, the RMS value can be determined for any
periodic signal x(t): s
Z
1 T 2
X= x (t)dt (1.16)
T 0
For a sinusoidal oscillation as illustrated in figure 1.3, the relationship between the RMS
value and the amplitude is the following:

Xb
X=√ (1.17)
2

1.2.2 Representation of sinusoidal quantities as phasors

We begin with the consideration of an exponential function ejωt . At any time t we obtain a
complex number as value of the function. At time t = 0 this number is purely real and equals 1;
for ωt = π/2 we obtain a purely imaginary number which equals j, etc. The absolute value is
always |ejωt | = 1. We can interpret this function as unit vector rotating around the origin with
the angular frequency ω. Depending on time t, we obtain different projections on the real and
imaginary axis.
At first we define a complex number X, which contains the position of the phasor at time t =
0:
Xb
x(t) = X b cos(ωt + φ) → X = √ (cos φ + j sin φ) = Xejφ (1.18)
2
The rotation of this phasor with ω can be expressed by multiplying with ejωt . We can therefore
represent the sinusoidal signal as a complex phasor X rotating with ω. The instantaneous value
of the function x(t) at time t becomes then
√

x(t) = 2 · < Xejωt (1.19)

1.3 Impedance
1.3.1 Definitions
In an AC circuit, different quantities for ,,impedances” are defined:

ˆ Resistance (active resistance) R: Resistance of ohmic elements

ˆ Reactance (reactive impedance) X: Impedance of inductances and capacitances

ˆ Impedance Z: complex quantity with real part R and imaginary part X.

Z = R + jX (1.20)

The unit of R, X and Z is Ohm (Ω). Figure 1.5 shows an impedance Z in the complex
plane.

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Point of time t1 Point of time t2 > t1

Á Á
w Time
X X axis
w Time
axis
f f
wt2
wt1

 Â

Figure 1.4: Representation of a sinusoidal AC quantity as rotating phasor at two different points
in time. X encloses a fixed angle φ with the time axis. The time axis rotates anti-clockwise
with the angular frequency ω. The length of the phasor X corresponds to the RMS value X;
the projection of X on the real axis thus corresponds to x(t)
√ .
2

X
Z
j
R Â
Figure 1.5: Representation of an impedance Z = R + jX in the complex plane.

ˆ Conductance G: Conductance of ohmic elements

ˆ Susceptance B: AC conductance of inductances and capacitances

ˆ Admittance Y : complex quantity with real part G and imaginary part B.

Y = G + jB (1.21)

The unit of G, B and Y is Siemens (S); 1 S = 1 Ω−1 .

The admittance of a passive bipole corresponds to its inverse impedance:

Y = Z −1 (1.22)

For serial and parallel connections of impedances, the same relationships as for ohmic resistances
hold true. The total impedance Z of two impedances Z 1 and Z 2 connected in series is

Z = Z1 + Z2 (1.23)

For the parallel connection of the two impedances, we obtain

Z1 · Z2
Z = Z1 k Z2 = (1.24)
Z1 + Z2

1.3.2 Impedance of R, L and C

For an ohmic resistance, the equation u = iR applies; voltage and current are always in phase,
i.e. the impedance becomes purely real:

ZR = R (1.25)

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IR IL IC

UR R UL L UC C

Á w Á Á
UL
jL I IC
UR L

IR Â Â jC Â

UC

Figure 1.6: Voltage at R, L and C as consequence of an imposed real current.

The relationship between current and voltage for an inductance is given by uL = L didtL . For
sinusoidal quantities U L and I L , a phase shift between current and voltage results from the
differential term. From U L = jωLI L , we obtain the impedance of an inductance
Z L = jωL = jXL (1.26)
The multiplication with j corresponds to a rotation of the voltage by 90o with respect to the
current (in sense of rotation of ω):
π
ϕL = ∠ (U L , I L ) = = 90o (1.27)
2
At an inductance, the voltage leads the current by 90°. This fact is represented as phasor
diagram in figure 1.6. Voltage and current at a capacitance evolve according to iC = C du
dt ; the
c

impedance becomes then 2

1 1
ZC = = −j = jXC (1.28)
jωC ωC
In this case, we obtain a negative phase shift between voltage and current:
π
ϕC = ∠ (U C , I C ) = − = −90o (1.29)
2
At a capacitance, the voltage lags the current by 90°.

1.4 Power and Energy

We consider a passive bipole as shown in figure 1.7 with voltage u = u(t) and current i = i(t).
The instantaneously (at time t) consumed power is the product of voltage and current:
p(t) = u(t)i(t) (1.30)
The unit of p is Watt (W). The energy exchanged between two points of time t1 and t2 is the
time integral of the instantaneous power:
Z t2
w= p(t)dt (1.31)
t1

The unit of energy is thus Watt second (Ws); a Watt second corresponds to a Joule, which
equals a Newton meter: (1 Ws = 1 J = 1 Nm).
2 1 j j
Please note that j
= j2
= −1
= −j.

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u Passive
bipole

Figure 1.7: Passive bipole with voltage u and current i.

1.4.1 Instantaneous power at R, L and C

Now we want to examine the instantaneous power p(t) at passive elements for arbitrary current
and voltage forms i = i(t) and u = u(t).

ˆ Ohmic resistance R:
u2
pR = ui = Ri2 = (1.32)
R
ˆ Inductance L: If a current i flows through a coil, the voltage L dt
di
occurs. The instantaneous
power then becomes
di 1 di2
pL = ui = L i = L (1.33)
dt 2 dt
It can be shown that the power instantaneously exchanged by an inductance corresponds
to the periodic change of the stored (magnetic) energy wL :

1 dwL
wL = Li2 ⇒ pL = (1.34)
2 dt

ˆ Capacitance C: If a voltage u is applied to a capacitance, a current C du

dt occurs. The
power is then calculated as follows:

du 1 du2
pC = ui = uC = C (1.35)
dt 2 dt
Also in the case of the capacitance, the instantaneous power is the change of the energy
wC stored in the electric field:
1 dwC
wC = Cu2 ⇒ pC = (1.36)
2 dt

1.4.2 AC power at R, L and C

Now we want to calculate the instantaneous power at passive bipoles for sinusoidal currents and
voltages.

ˆ Ohmic resistance flown through by current i = Ib cos (ωt + φ): The instantaneous power
results in

pR = Ri2 = RIb 2 cos2 (ωt + φ)

RIb 2
= {1 + cos [2 (ωt + φ)]} (1.37)
2
We see that the instantaneous power is composed of a constant part and a part oscillating
with twice the voltage frequency. The average over time of the instantaneous power is a
time-independent term:
1
P R = RIb 2 = RI 2 (1.38)
2

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ˆ Inductance flown through by current i = Ib cos (ωt + φ): Also in this case, the instanta-
neous power oscillates with twice the voltage frequency, however around the zero position:

pL = ui = −ωLIb sin (ωt + φ) Ib cos (ωt + φ)

| {z }
di
u=L dt

ωLIb 2
= − sin [2 (ωt + φ)] (1.39)
2
We note that the power balance of an inductance is zero in the time average:

PL = 0 (1.40)

The amplitude of the oscillating instantaneous power is defined as reactive power QL . The
(inductive) reactive power consumed by an inductance results from equation 1.39:

ωLIb 2
PbL = QL = = XL I 2 (1.41)
2

b cos (ωt + φ): The product of voltage and current leads to

ˆ Capacitance with u = U
 
p = ui = U b cos (ωt + φ) −ωC U
b sin (ωt + φ)
| {z }
i=C du
dt

ωC Ub2
= − sin [2 (ωt + φ)] (1.42)
2
We note that the capacitance does not exchange any power in the time average:

PC = 0 (1.43)

The (capacitive) reactive power results again from the amplitude of the instantaneous
power:
U2
PbC = QC = (1.44)
XC
We summarize that inductances and capacitances do exchange energy instantaneously when
being operated with alternating current. They do not exchange power, however, if one considers
the time average.

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1.5 Exercises
Exercise 1.5.1 Basic complex number calculations
a) Three complex numbers are given:

z 1 = 3 + j7; z 2 = −1 + j; z 3 = 5∠60◦

Calculate

• z 21 + z 2 · z 3
• z 1 · z ∗2 · z 3
• z −1
1 · =(z 2 )

and give all results in orthogonal as well as in polar coordinates.

b) We know the absolute value and the power factor of an ohmic-inductive load Z (see
figure 1.5): |Z| = 500 Ω, cos ϕ = 0.85. Calculate R and L for 50 Hz.

Exercise 1.5.2 Basic phasor calculations

We consider the signal shown in figure 1.8. Determine
b sin(ωt + φ) so that this function describes the given
a) the constants of the function x(t) = X
signal;

b) the time average X as well as the RMS value X of the signal;

√

c) the complex number X, so that x(t) = 2 · < Xejωt .
Answer the following questions:
d) How would the RMS value change if one doubled the frequency?

e) How would the RMS value change if one superimposed a positive offset to the signal?

400

300

200
650.54

100
x(t)

-100

-200

-300

-400
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
t in s

Figure 1.8: Sinusoidal AC signal.

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Exercise 1.5.3 Passive elements

Three passive elements are given:

R = 140 Ω; L = 1.2 mH; C = 33 µF

Determine for a 50 Hz system the

a) impedance of the series connection of R, L and C;

b) admittance of the parallel connection of R, L and C.

Give all results in orthogonal as well as in polar coordinates.

Exercise 1.5.4 Passive elements and frequency dependency

We consider the circuit of figure 1.9. The values of the resistance and of the inductance are
given: R = 100 Ω, L = 50 mH.

R L
a b

C
Figure 1.9: RLC-circuit.

a) For which value of the capacitance C does the impedance between the terminals a and b
become purely ohmic at 50 Hz?

b) We assume that the circuit is now operated with the capacitance calculated in a), but at
60 Hz. Does the total impedance between a and b become inductive or capacitive?

Exercise 1.5.5 Passive elements, voltage dependency, and energy profile

a) How high is the amplitude of the instantaneous power at an inductance L = 0.9 mH if a
current i(t) = 247 · sin (314.159 · t) A flows through it?

b) How much does the reactive power generated by a capacitance increase if one increases
the frequency of the supply voltage from 50 to 60 Hz?

c) Figure 1.10 shows the demand for electric energy on a winter’s day in a country with 7.5
million inhabitants. Estimate the energy consumption per capita on this day with the
help of this diagram.

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12

10

P 6

0 6 12 18 24

Figure 1.10: Consumption of electric energy on a winter’s day.

Exercise 1.5.6 Three-phase electronic inverter

A three-phase electronic inverter is producing active power. The time evolutions of the phase-
to-neutral voltage va (t) and the corresponding current ia (t) are shown in Fig. 1.11. The current
√
orientation is not known. The RMS value of the phase voltage (resp. line current) are 400/ 3 V
(resp. 30 A). The three phases are balanced.

a) Is the inverter producing or consuming reactive power?

b) Determine the three-phase active, reactive and apparent powers.

c) Assume that the inverter is lossless and the DC side can be represented by a Thevenin
equivalent as shown in the figure. Compute the value of the DC current IDC .

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va
ia
200

−200

0 10 20 30 40 50

t [ms]

Figure 1.11: Three-phase electronic inverter.

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Chapter 2

AC power circuits

2.1 Exercises
Exercise 2.1.1 Y-D loads
An electric radiator consisting of three Ohmic resistances is connected to a three-phase power
output, which supplies a constant, symmetric voltage. Will a wye or a delta connection of
the resistances lead to a faster warming of your house and how much faster? Show some brief
calculations.

Exercise 2.1.2 Power factor - load

Fill the cells of the table below with the most appropriate answer among:

=0 <0 >0 =1 <1

1 loadconvention is assumed
For the cosφ also state if it is capacitive (cap.) or inductive (ind.) where appropriate.

Exercise 2.1.3 Power factor - line

A transmission line is serving a load. How does the power factor of the load cosφ influence the
maximum transferable active power of the line?

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Exercise 2.1.4 Symmetrical three-phase system analysis

In this example, we will examine the power occurring in a symmetrical three-phase system. We
consider the single phase diagram of a three-phase transmission system in figure 2.1.
Generator Overhead line Load
UG ZOL ZL

Figure 2.1: Generator-Line-Load.

A generator supplies power to a load via an overhead transmission line. The overhead line
is modelled as a concentrated series impedance Z OL ; the load is given as constant impedance
Z L . The following quantities are known:

ˆ Generator voltage UG = 20 kV (phase to phase), f = 50 Hz

ˆ Overhead line impedance Z OL = ROL + jXOL = 2.5 + j3.0 Ω

ˆ Load impedance Z L = RL + jXL = 110 + j50 Ω (by phase, in Y-connection)

The following problems are to be solved:

a) Draw the complete three-phase as well as the single phase equivalent circuit diagram for
a balanced state.

b) Calculate the phase currents and the active, reactive and apparent power consumed by
the load as well as the power factor of the load.

c) The power factor of the load shall be increased through a connection of capacitors (in par-
allel to the load). Thereby, the capacitors can be ∆- or Y -connected. Which capacitances
C∆ , CY would be necessary to compensate the power factor to a value of 0.98 (inductive)?

d) Compare the line losses (active and reactive power) with and without compensation.

e) Compare the voltages (absolute value and phase angle) of the load with and without
compensation.

f) Reconsider the results from d) and e) and summarize the effects of reactive power com-
pensation.

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Chapter 3

Magnetic circuits and power

transformers

3.1 Exercises
Exercise 3.1.1 Three-coil magnetic core

i1 φ1 φ2 φ3
i2 i3

e1 e2 e3

g g g

For the magnetic circuit of the image above, it is given that the three gaps have the same
length g and cross-section A. The magnetic resistance of the core can be neglected.

(a) Compute the magnetic fluxes φ1 , φ2 , and φ3 as a function of the currents i1 , i2 , and i3 .

(b) Give the necessary condition to have no magnetic flux in the middle leg. Compute the
magnetic flux in the other two legs in this scenario.

(c) Compute the self-inductance of each coil and the mutual inductance between the three
coils.

Exercise 3.1.2 Single-phase transformer

A single-phase transformer is rated at 30 kVA, 3.45/0.23 kV, 50 Hz. An ideal voltage source,
connected to the high voltage side, supplies an impedance load. At a voltage of VL = 0.22 kV the
load has a power consumption of 15 kVA, power factor 0.85 lagging. Suppose the transformer
is ideal.

(a) Draw the equivalent circuit of the system.

(b) Determine the voltage across the primary winding.

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(c) Calculate the load impedance Z L .

(d) Determine the load impedance referred to the 3.45 kV side.

(e) What are the real and reactive power supplied to the 3.45 kV winding?

Exercise 3.1.3 Per-unit calculations

The reactance of a transformer is 0.15 pu with a power base value of 150 MVA. What is the
transformer’s reactance in pu, if we assume a power base value of 100 MVA? Clearly show your
calculation.

Exercise 3.1.4 Per-unit single-phase transformer

A single-phase transformer is rated at 20 kVA, 600/230 V, 50 Hz. The equivalent leakage
impedance of the transformer referred to the 600 V winding is Z 1 = 0.07 65◦ Ω.

(a) Determine the per unit leakage impedance referred to winding 1 using the transformer
ratings as base values.

(b) Determine the per unit leakage impedance referred to winding 2 using the transformer
ratings as base values.

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Chapter 4

Per-unit system

4.1 Exercises
Exercise 4.1.1 Benefits of per-uni system
What is the advantage of selecting the base voltages of the p.u. system at the two sides of a
transformer according to its voltage transformation ratio?

Exercise 4.1.2 Per-unit analysis with transformers

This example is taken from: A. R. Bergen, V. Vittal: Power Systems Analysis, 2nd Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2000, ISBN 0-13-691990-1, pp. 164–166.
We consider a three-phase system with the single phase diagram shown in figure 4.1. The
nominal transformer quantities are:

ˆ Trafo 1: SB,T 1 = 5M V A (3-ph.), Prim.: 13.2 kV – Sec.: 132 kV,

xT 1 = 10%=0.1 p.u.

ˆ Trafo 2: SB,T 2 = 10M V A (3-ph.), Prim.: 138 kV – Sec.: 69 kV,

xT 2 = 8%= 0.08 p.u.

The transformer voltages are given in phase-to-phase values. The impedance of the overhead
line is Z OL = 10 + j100 Ω, the ohmic load impedance is Z L = 300 Ω. The RMS value of the
phase-to-phase generator voltage is UG = 13.2 kV.
Generator Transformer 1 Overhead line Transformer 2 Load
UG ZOL ZL

1 2 3

Figure 4.1: Power transmission with transformer-line-transformer.

The following problems are to be solved:

a) Pick a base value for the power (one for the entire system) and three base values for the
voltage (for sections 1, 2 and 3) and express all impedances and the generator voltage in
p.u. values.

b) Draw the single phase equivalent circuit.

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Name Type Rated power [MVA] Rated voltage [kV] Reactance [pu]
(on device base)
G Generator 90 22 0.18
T1 Transformer 50 22/220 0.10
T2 Transformer 40 220/11 0.06
T3 Transformer 40 22/110 0.064
T4 Transformer 40 110/11 0.08
M Motor 66.5 10.45 0.185
L1 Power line 135 220 0.4
L2 Power line 65 110 0.35

Table 4.1: Parameters of AC power system

c) Calculate the absolute value of the phase currents in the sections 1, 2 and 3, both in p.u.
and in SI.

d) Calculate the three-phase apparent power of the load, both in p.u. and in SI.

Exercise 4.1.3 Per-unit three-phase power system

Consider the three-phase power system with one-line diagram given in Fig. 4.2. The three-phase
load ”L” at bus 4 consumes 57 MVA, 0.6 power factor lagging at a line voltage of 10.45 kV.
The remaining system data is given in Table 4.1. For the transformers, the per unit values
are expressed with respect to the voltage on the high voltage side. Select a common base of
SB3φ = 100 MVA and VB = 22 kV on the generator side.

(a) Draw the single-phase equivalent circuit of the system showing all impedances (including
the load impedance).

(b) How many different voltage zones are there in the system? Determine the base voltage,
the base power and the base impedance for each voltage zone.

(c) Determine the values of all impedances in per unit.

(d) Is the system (N-1) secure with respect to the failure of a power line? Justify your answer.

1 4
2 3
T1 T2
Line 1
M

G
5 6
T3 T4
Line 2
L

Figure 4.2: AC power system one-line diagram

Last updated: April 1, 2020 Page 20

Chapter 5

Transmission lines

5.1 Exercises
Exercise 5.1.1 Safe magnetic field distance
A balanced 132 kV three-phase circuit transfers 300 MVA. It is given that the following organ-
isations have set these maximum safety limits for alternating magnetic fields of low frequency:
(a) ICNIRP: 0.1mT
(b) CENELEC: 0.64mT
(c) NRPB: 1.6mT
What is the minimum safe distance concerning the magnetic field?

Exercise 5.1.2 Transmission line noise

Losses and acoustic noise are generated by partial discharges along the overhead transmission
conductors (so-called corona discharges). These unintended noise emissions can be mitigated
by reducing the electric field on the conductor surface. Think about measures leading to a
reduction of the electric field strength and thus to a noise reduction. While doing so, consider
the following aspects:
(a) Conductor voltage
(b) Geometry of the line tower, arrangement of the conductors
(c) Cross section and form of the conductors

Exercise 5.1.3 Line parameter calculation

In this example, we compare the surge impedances and the surge impedance loadings of two
different three-phase conductors. The following data are known:

Overhead line Cable

Per unit length series resistanceR0 in Ω/km 0.12 0.10
Per unit length shunt conductance G0 in µS/km 0.05 1.00
Per unit length series inductance L0 in mH/km 1.00 0.30
Per unit length shunt capacitance C 0 in nF/km 10 200
Nominal voltage UN in kV (phase to phase) 110 110
Nominal current IN in A (per phase) 330 290
Frequency f in Hz 50 50
Length l in km 85 45

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CUT CHAPTER 5. TRANSMISSION LINES

Calculate the surge impedances of the two conductors.

The following exercises are to be solved:

(a) Calculate the surge impedances of the two conductors.

(b) Calculate the surge impedance loadings of the two conductors (for nominal voltage at the
end of the line) and compare them to the corresponding nominal powers.

(c) Which data from the table didn’t you need? Why not?

Exercise 5.1.4 PI equivalent

In this example, we want to calculate the concentrated elements of a Π equivalent circuit from
the distributed line parameters. We know the following quantities:

ˆ R0 = 0.12 Ω/km, L0 = 1 mH/km, G0 = 0 µS/km, C 0 = 10 nF/km

ˆ Line length l = 300 km

ˆ Frequency f = 50Hz

The following exercises are to be solved:

(a) Calculate the series impedance Z l and the shunt admittance Y q of the Π equivalent circuit
with the exact relationships from the wave equation.

(b) Calculate the series impedance Z l and the shunt admittance Y q of the Π equivalent circuit
with the simplified equations for |γl|  1.

(c) How can we explain the presence of an ohmic component in the shunt element (< Y q 6=
0) in case a) although we assumed G0 = 0?

Last updated: April 1, 2020 Page 22

Chapter 6

Power system operation

6.1 Exercises
Exercise 6.1.1 Maximum transferable power in an AC system
In this example, we deal with the maximum transferable power in an AC system. We consider
the transmission system of figure 6.1. A generator supplies power to a grid via a transformer and
an overhead line. The generator is modelled as voltage source with an internal reactance xS .1
The amplitude of the internal generator voltage uGi is controlled to 1.0 p.u. The transformer
and the overhead line are both represented with their reactance. The grid is considered to be
an infinite bus, i.e. both the amplitude and the phase angle of the voltage uN are constant and
independent from the power infeed.
Generator Transformer Overhead Grid
line (infinite bus)
jxS jxT jxL
G
uGi uN

Figure 6.1: A generator supplies power to a grid.

The following data are known:

ˆ Voltages: uN = 1.0∠0o p.u., |uGi | = 1.0 p.u.

ˆ Reactances: xS = 1.00 p.u., xT = 0.10 p.u., xL = 2.00 p.u.

The following exercises are to be solved:

a) Which active power pmax (in p.u.) can be maximally transferred from the generator to
the grid?

b) To which value x0L should the reactance of the overhead line be reduced in order to keep
a steady state stability margin of 30% when transmitting pmax ?

c) Which reactive power would the generator and the grid exchange with full and reduced
line reactance (cases a) and b)) when transmitting pmax ?

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CUT CHAPTER 6. POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Grid
(infinite bus) Overhead line Load

Z
S2=P2+jQ2

U1 U2

Figure 6.2: A load is connected to an infinite bus via an overhead line.

Exercise 6.1.2 Voltage drop across an AC line

In this example, we deal with the voltage drop along a line. We know the voltage U 1 at the
beginning of the line, the complex power S 2 at the end of the line as well as the series impedance
of the line Z (see figure 6.2):
ˆ U 1 = 400∠0o kV

ˆ S 2 = P2 + jQ2 = 200 MW +j70 MVar

ˆ Z = R + jX = 10 + j100 Ω
Calculate the magnitude (in kV) and the phase angle of the voltage U 1 at the end of the line
a) with exact equations

b) with the simplification R = 0

c) with the simplifications R = 0 and P2 = 0

Exercise 6.1.3 Distributed generator integration

The following exercise illustrates, in a simplified manner, a concern due to the connection of
Distributed Generators (DGs) to distribution grids. In situations of low load and high DG
production, the active power flow reverts from distribution to transmission, and the voltage
rises in the medium-voltage and low-voltage distribution grids. In case of overvoltage, customer
appliances may be damaged and DGs may be disconnected by the protections of their power
electronics.
Consider the following system:

A B C
DGU
MV cable
HV system
HV/MV Load
transformer

System data:
ˆ HV network: nominal voltage: 150 kV; magnitude of Thevenin e.m.f. Eth = 1 pu, the
Thevenin impedance is Xth = 5 Ohm

ˆ transformer: nominal apparent power = 10 MVA; reactance Xtrf o = 0.14 pu on the 10-
MVA base; ratio r = 138/11 kV/kV
1
For static considerations, it is common to approximate the internal reactance of synchronous generators
with their synchronous reactance xS . The theoretical background of this model is the two-axis theory (Park &
Robertson, 1928).

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CUT CHAPTER 6. POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

ˆ cable: nominal voltage = 11 kV; R = 0.0 Ω; X = 1.2 Ω

ˆ load power factor: 0.95 inductive

ˆ DG: nominal voltage = 11 kV; nominal apparent power = 5 MVA, nominal active power
PN = 4.5 MW

Answer the following questions:

a) Draw the per-unit single phase equivalent circuit, assuming a constant impedance load in
Y connection and that the DG is not connected. Label clearly the nodes of buses A, B,
and C, the load voltage and the system sources, currents and impedances.

b) Choose the appropriate base voltages, and express all impedances and the generator volt-
age in pu values. Use base power Sbase = 10 MVA and base voltage on bus A Vb1 = 138 kV.

c) Consider a ”high” load PL = 5 MW with the DG not in operation. Compute the load
voltage VC . Is it within the security margin of ±5%?

d) Consider a ”low” load PL = 1 MW and a ”high” production PDG = 4.5 MW with QDG = 0
(unity power factor). Show that the voltage VC takes a high value.

e) Now, consider the same PL and PDG of the previous question and the DG follows the
VDE standard shown in Fig. 6.3. What is the PF the unit will work at? Will it consume
or produce reactive power? How much? Show that the voltage VC is brought back to a
normal value.

Figure 6.3: Reactive power control according to the VDE standard (Pgen is in per-unit of the
nominal active power PN of the DG)

f) Is the current in the DG acceptable if it operates as in the previous question?

g) Which reactive power must be consumed by the DG to bring the voltage V to 11.44 kV?

Last updated: April 1, 2020 Page 25

Chapter 7

Rotating machines

7.1 Exercises
Exercise 7.1.1
What is the principal difference between a synchronous machine and an induction machine?

Exercise 7.1.2 Synchronous generator voltages

The following information is known about the simple two-pole synchronous generator in Fig. 7.1.
The peak flux density of the rotor magnetic field is 0.2 T, and the mechanical rate of rotation
of the shaft is 3000 r/min. The stator radius of the machine is 0.25 m, its coil length is 0.3 m,
and there are 15 turns per coil. The machine is Y-connected.

a) What is the frequency of the generator?

b) What are the three phase voltages of the generator as a function of time?

c) What is the rms phase voltage of this generator?

d) What is the rms terminal voltage of this generator?

•
BM
× ×

• ωm

• •

Figure 7.1: Three-phase machine.

Exercise 7.1.3
A three-phase, Y-connected, 50 Hz, two-pole synchronous machine has a stator with 2000 turns
of wire per phase. What rotor flux would be required to produce terminal (line-to-line) voltage
of 6 kV?

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CUT CHAPTER 7. ROTATING MACHINES

Exercise 7.1.4 Synchronous generator field current

(Adapted from ”Chapman, S.J. (2005). Electric machinery fundamentals (4e). McGraw-Hill.”)
A 480-V, 50 Hz, Delta-connected, four-pole synchronous generator has the Open-Circuit
Characteristic curve shown in Fig 7.2 (this curve shows how the voltage VA changes against the
field current IF if the generator is open circuited). This generator has a synchronous reactance
of 0.1 Ω and an armature resistance of 0.015 Ω. At full load, the machine supplies 1200 A at
0.8 PF lagging. Under full-load conditions, the friction and windage losses are 40 kW and the
core losses are 30 kW. Ignore any field circuit losses.

Figure 7.2: Open-Circuit Characteristic curve of synchronous generator.

a) What is the speed of rotation of this generator?

b) How much field current must be supplied to the generator to make the terminal voltage
480 V at no load?

c) If the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws 1200 A at 0.8 PF lagging,
how much field current will be required to keep the terminal voltage equal to 480 V?

d) How much power is the generator now supplying? How much power is supplied to the
generator by the prime mover? What is this machine’s overall efficiency?

e) If the generator’s load were suddenly disconnected from the line, what would happen to
its terminal voltage?

f) Finally, suppose that the generator is connected to a load drawing 1200 A at 0.8 PF
leading. How much field current would be required to keep VA 480 V?

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CUT CHAPTER 7. ROTATING MACHINES

Exercise 7.1.5 Synchronous generator analysis under varying load

(Adapted from ”Chapman, S.J. (2005). Electric machinery fundamentals (4e). McGraw-Hill.”)
A 480-V, 50-Hz, Y-connected, six-pole synchronous generator has a per-phase synchronous
reactance of 1.0Ω. Its full-load armature current is 60 A at a PF of 0.8 lagging. This generator
has friction and windage losses of 1.5 kW and core losses of 1.0 kW at 50 Hz at full load. Since
the armature resistance is being ignored, assume that the I 2 R losses are negligible. The field
current has been adjusted so that the terminal voltage is 480 V at no load.

a) What is the speed of rotation of this generator?

b) What is the terminal voltage of this generator if the following are true?

i. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF lagging.

ii. It is loaded with the rated current at 1.0 PF.
iii. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF leading.

c) What is the efficiency of this generator (ignoring the unknown electrical losses) when it is
operating at the rated current and 0.8 PF lagging?

d) How much shaft torque must be applied by the prime mover at full load? How large is
the induced counter-torque?

e) What is the voltage regulation of this generator at 0.8 PF lagging? At 1.0 PF? At 0.8 PF
leading?

Exercise 7.1.6 Synchronous motor analysis under varying load

(Adapted from ”Chapman, S.J. (2005). Electric machinery fundamentals (4e). McGraw-Hill.”)
A 208-V, 45-kVA, Delta-connected, 50-Hz synchronous machine has a synchronous reactance
of 2.5 Ω and a negligible armature resistance. Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW, and
its core losses are 1.0 kW. Initially, the shaft is supplying a 15-hp load, and the motor’s PF is
0.8 leading.

a) Sketch the phasor diagram of this motor, and find the values of I A , I L (line current) and
EA.

b) Assume that the shaft load is now increased to 30 hp. Find I A , I L and E A after the load
change. What is the new motor power factor?

c) Sketch the phasor diagram in response to this change.

Last updated: April 1, 2020 Page 28

Chapter 8

Power flow analysis

29
Chapter 9

Short-circuit analysis

30
Chapter 10

Unbalanced operation

31
Chapter 11

FACTS devices

32
Chapter 12

Answers to exercises

Exercise 1.5.1 a) 61.7∠139.4◦ b) 53.85∠ − 8.2◦ c) 0.1313∠ − 66.8◦

Exercise 1.5.3 a) 169.8∠ − 34.5◦ Ω b) 2.64∠ − 89.8◦ S

Exercise 1.5.4 a) C = 4.88 µF

Exercise 1.5.5 a) pb = 8.62 kW c) 27.2 kWh

π
Exercise 1.5.6 a) 4 b) Pac = 14.7 kW ; Qac = 14.7 kV Ar c) Idc = 28.75 A

Exercise 7.1.2 a) fe = 50 Hz b) Emax = 169.7 V c) ERM S = 120 V d) VT = 208 V

Exercise 4.1.3

33