K.

RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous)
Affiliated to Anna University Chennai, Approved by AICTE New Delhi.
ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution, Accredited with “A +”Grade by NAAC

SAMAYAPURAM, TRICHY-621 112

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PHYSICS LABORATORY
MANUAL CUM RECORD NOTE BOOK
(2023 Regulations)

(2024-2025)

NAME :
SECTION ROLL NO :
REGISTRATION NUMBER :
SEMESTER :
DEPARTMENT :
NAME :

REGISTER NO :

YEAR / SEM :

DEGREE / BRANCH :

COURSE CODE : GEA1111

COURSE NAME : ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

Certified that this is a bonafide record work done by the above student during the

year 20 - 20 in the Engineering Physics Laboratory.

Staff in-charge Head of the Department

Submitted for the End semester Practical Examination held on..........................................

Internal Examiner External Examiner

S.NO. Page No.
Name of the Experiment

1. Institute Vision, Mission and PO’s 1

2. Instructions to Students 3

3. Course Objectives, Course Outcomes and Syllabus 4

3
 Institute Vision Mission
VISION
To serve the society by offering top-notch technical education on par with global standards.

MISSION
We will strive to
M1: Be a center of excellence for technical education in emerging technologies by exceeding the
needs of the industry and society.
M2: Be an institute with world class research facilities.
M3: Be an institute nurturing talent and enhancing the competency of students to transform them
as all-round personality respecting moral and ethical values.

Department Vision and Mission

VISION OF DEPARTMENT:

To enhance the quality education in basics science and humanities subjects and creating eminent
engineers by providing the best teaching methodologies.

MISSION OF DEPARTMENT:
 To stimulate the young minds for active involvement in academic and co-curricular

activities

 To legitimize students with good competitive skills for facing the challenges in the field of

engineering & technologies

1
 Program Outcomes (POs)
Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
PO 1 fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
PO 2 engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
PO 3
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.

Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
PO 4
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
PO 5 modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
PO 6 assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

PO 7 solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.

Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and

PO 8
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or

PO 9
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
PO 10
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.

Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
PO 11
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
PO 12 engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

2
 Instructions to Students

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
 Students should attend the Physics practical class with completed Record

note book and in proper uniform.

 Students should bring the required things like calculator, pen, pencil, eraser,

etc.,

 Absenteeism for lab classes will not be permitted.

 While entering the lab students should enter their attendance in lab register.

Also they have to sign in apparatus issue register while receiving and returning

the accessories like screw guage, vernier caliper, reading lens, etc.,

 Read the instructions for the experiment to be performed in advance and

prepare for the practical before coming to the lab.

 The procedure will be explained in the lab and the student has to complete the

experiment on time.

 Know your apparatus and experimental arrangement.

 Do not misuse the apparatus and take care of it.

 Understand the experiment, complete it do the calculation and get signature of

the concerned faculty.

 The doubts & difficulties, if any, should be discussed with the concern staff

immediately.

3
 Course Code : GEA1111
Course Title : ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY
Course Objectives
To impart the usage of basic apparatus and to study the characteristics of the materials and light
source.
Course Outcomes
Upon completion of the course, the students will be able to:
CO1 Analyze the properties of an optical fibre and the wavelength of a laser source
CO2 Determine a Planck's constant and analyze the variation in photocurrent.
CO3 Analyze the thermal behaviour of poor conductors
CO4 Examine the elastic behaviour of a given material.
CO5 Invesigate the properties of semiconducting material.
Determine the properties of a liquid under ultrasonic conditions and simulate the
CO6
indentation behaviour of a material.
Syllabus
List of Experiments:
1 Examine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle values of a given optical fibre
2 Determine the wavelength of the given laser source
3 Determine the size of the lycopodium powder using lase
4 Design the necessary circuit to find the Planck’s Constant
5 Investigate the variation of photocurrent with the intensity of light
6 Test the thermal conducting nature of a given poor conductor using Lee’s disc method
7 Inspect the given thin wire by finding its rigidity modulus value.
8 Estimate the Young’s modulus of the given material by using non-uniform bending method
9 Examine the bandgap value of a given semiconducting material
Analyse the type of a given semiconductor material based on its Hall coefficient and charge
10
densityvalues
Determine the velocity of Ultrasonic waves and compressibility of the given liquid by
11
formation ofacoustical grating - Ultrasonic interferometer
12 Determine the indentation hardness of the material using Vicker’s hardness method

4
 Contents
Faculty
Ex. No. Date Name of the Experiment PageNo. Marks
Sign.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

5
 Contents

Faculty
Ex. No. Date Name of the Experiment PageNo. Marks
Sign.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Staff in-charge

6
7
Fig. 1.1 Vernier Caliper
 Measuring Instruments

I. Vernier Caliper

AIM
To find the breadth of the given specimen.

Apparatus Required
Vernier Caliper, Specimen.

Description
The Vernier caliper consists of a main scale (fixed scale) and a Vernier scale.
Before taking a reading with the Vernier caliper the least count and zero error have to be
determined.
When the two jaws A & B (Fig. 1.1) of the Vernier caliper touch each other and
if the zero of the Vernier coincides with zero of the main scale division there is no zero error
(Fig. 1.2)
When the two jaws are in contact and if the zero of the vernier is to the right of the
zero of the main scale the error is positive. In this case let 5th vernier division coincide with
definite main scale division (Fig. 1.3)
Value of zero error = + (VSC x LC)
= + 5 x 0.01 cm = 0.05 cm
When the two jaws are in contact and if the zero of the Vernier is to the left of
the zero of the main scale the error is negative. In this case let 5th vernier scale division
coincides with definite main scale divisions (Fig. 1.4).
Then value of zero error (ZE) = – (10 – 5) x LC
ZE = – 5 x LC
= – 5 x 0.01 cm
ZE = – 0.05 cm
ZC = + 0.05 cm

8
Least count
L.C. = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

1 MSD = 1/10 cm = 0.1 cm

Total number of divisions on vernier scale = 10

10 vernier scale divisions (VSD) = 9 main scale division (MSD)

Value of 1 VSD = 9/10 MSD

Value of 1 MSD = 0.1 cm

Hence value of 1 VSD = 9/10 x 0.1 cm = 0.09 cm

Least count (LC) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

= 0.1 – 0.09

= 0.01 cm

Least count (LC) = 0.01 cm

Fig. 1.2 No error Fig. 1.3 Positive error

Fig. 1.4 Negative error Fig. 1.5 Vernier Readings

9
Determination of breadth of the given specimen
The object whose length to be measured is held between the two outside jaws. The main
scale reading and the vernier scale coincidence are noted.
Observed reading (OR) = MSR + (VSC x LC)
Now VSR = VSC x LC
Total reading (TR) = OR + ZC
Length of the given object is measured at different places and the observations are
tabulated in table (1) and mean value is taken.

Table - 1
Least count = 0.01 cm Zero error = ................................. div

Z.C = Z.E x L.C Zero correction =............................... x 10–2 m

Main Scale Vernier Scale
Observed Reading OR = Correct Reading
S. Reading Coincidence
MSR + (VSC x LC) = OR ± ZC
No. (MSR) (VSC)
(cm) (div) (cm) (cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean = x 10–2 m

Result

Breadth of the given object =

10
 Fig. 2.1 Screw gauge

Pitch
Least count =
Number of head scale divisions

Distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale

Pitch =
Number of rotations given to the head scale

5 mm
= = 1mm.
5

1 mm
 L.C = = 0.01 mm.
100

Fig. 2.2 No zero error Fig. 2.3 Positive zero error

Fig. 2.4 Negative zero error Fig. 2.5 Screw gauge readings

11
 II. Screw gauge

AIM
To find the thickness of given specimen.

Apparatus Required
Screw gauge and specimen

Description
A screw gauge can measure the distance with more precision than a vernier caliper.
The screw gauge consists of a barrel (pitch scale) moving within a head scale (sleeve).
The head scale is divided into 100 divisions. The head scale moves over the pitch scale,
which is graduated in 1 mm. A ratchet knob is provided for closing the screw gauge on the
object being measured without exerting too much force.
To make a measurement with the screw gauge, the pitch, least count and zero error
have to be determined.
Total number of divisions on head scale = 100.
When the tip of the screw and the stud are in contact (Fig. 2.1) and if the zero of the
head scale exactly coincides with the zero of the pitch scale (Fig. 2.2), there is no zero error.
If the zero of the head scale is below the reference line on the pitch scale, the error is positive.
In this case let 5th head scale division coincides with the reference line (Fig. 2.3)
Then the value of zero error = HSC x LC
= 5 x 0.01 mm
= + 0.05 mm
Z.C. = – 0.05 mm
If the zero of the head scale is above the reference line then the zero error is negative.
Let 95th head scale division coincides with the reference line, in this case (Fig. 2.4).
Then the value of zero error = – ( 100 – 95 ) x LC
= – 0.05 mm
Z.C. = + 0.05 mm

12
Determination of thickness of an object
The object whose thickness is to be measured is held tightly between the stud (A) and
the spindle (B). The head scale coincidence with the pitch scale and the pitch scale reading
is noted.
Observed reading (OR) = PSR + (HSC x LC)
 Total reading (TR) = OR  ZC
Observations are repeated at different places on the object. The readings are tabulated
in Table (2) and mean value is found.

Table - 2
Least count = 0.01 cm Zero error (ZE) = ....................... div

Z.C = Z.E x L.C Zero correction (ZC) = ....................... x 10–3 m

Pitch Scale Head Scale Observed Reading OR =
Correct Reading
S. Reading Coincidence PSR + (HSC x LC)
CR = OR  ZC
No. (PSR) (HSC) (HSC)
(mm) (div) (mm) (mm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean = x 10–3 m

Result

Thickness of the given object =

13
Fig. 3.1 Travelling Microscope

14
 III. Travelling Microscope

AIM
To determine the outer diameter of the given specimen.

Apparatus Required
Travelling microscope, capillary tube, reading lens.

Description
The travelling microscope consists of a compound microscope that is capable of
independent vertical and horizontal movements fitted with main scales (M1 and M2) and
verniers (V1 and V2). The microscope attached with vernier V 1 can be raised or lowered
along M1 by a screw S1/P. Similarly V2 is moved to and fro horizontally with a screw S2/Q.
Two screws (L1 and L2) at the base of the microscope are used for its leveling. The main
scale is marked in millimeters and half millimeters. The vernier is divided into 50 divisions
(Fig. 3.1).

Measurement of outer diameter of a capillary tube

The capillary tube is held horizontally and the microscope is focused on the cross section.
The vertical cross wire is made tangential in two diametrically opposite points of the bore
of the tube and the difference in the horizontal scale readings is taken. The experiment is
repeated by making horizontal cross wire tangential to the bore and the difference in vertical
scale reading is taken and the observations are recorded in table (3).

15
 Table - 3
Determination of outer diameter of the capillary tubeLeast count =
0.001 cm

Microscope reading
Vernier
Main TR =
S. Scale V.S.C = Diameter
Position Scale (MSR +
No. Coincide (VSC x LC)
Reading VSR)

(cm) (div) (cm) (cm) (10–2 m)

1. Left (A) D1 (V1 ~ V2)

Right
2.
(B)

3. Top (C) D2 (H1 ~ H2)

Bottom
4.
(D)

Calculation
Least Count (LC) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
1
1 MSD = cm = 0.05 cm
20
Total number of divisions on the vernier scale = 50 50

VSD coincides with 49 MSD.

 50 VSD = 49 MSD

 1 VSD = MSD
= x 0.05 = 0.049 cm

 LC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
= 0.05 – 0.049
LC = 0.001 cm

Result
Outer diameter of the capillary tube =

16
 Expt. No: Date:
DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE IN
AN OPTICAL FIBER
AIM
To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of the given optical fibre

APPARATUS REQUIRED
(i) Laser source
(ii) Screen and Scale
(iii) Optical Fiber
(iv) Numerical Aperture measurement Jig etc

FORMULA:

(i) Numerical aperture of the optical fiber

𝑟
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑢𝑛i𝑡
√𝑟2 + 𝑑2

(ii) Acceptance angle

𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑆i𝑛−1 𝑁𝐴 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

Symbol Explanation Unit

θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 Acceptance angle Degree
NA Numerical aperture -
Distance between the tip of the optical fiber and the Metre
d
aperture of the Numerical aperture (NA) Jig
r Radius of the circular opening in NA jig Metre

17
 Fig.4. Numerical Aperture

PROCEDURE

CALCULATION OF THE NUMERICAL APERTURE BY FIBER OPTIC METHOD

A known length of fiber is taken. One end of the fiber is connected to the laser source and the other
end is connected to the numerical aperture (NA) Jig as shown in fig.4. The source is switched ON. The
opening in the NA jig is completely opened so that a circular red patch oflaser light is observed on the
screen. By opening in the jig is slowly closed with the knob provided, at a particular point the circular red
patch of laser light is observed on the screen. By adjusting the opening in the NA Jig is slowly at particular
points the circular light patch in the screen just cuts. The radius of the circular opening (r) of NA jig at
which the circular patch of light just cuts is measured.
The distance between the NA jig and opening and the fiber can be measured directly with the help
of the calibration in NA jig. By substituting the values in the given formula the NA can be calculated. By
finding NA and substitute it in the given formula the acceptance angle can be calculated.

18
TABLE 3: TO FIND NUMERICAL APERTURE

Distance between the Radius of the

Length of the
S.No NA jig opening & circular opening
given fiber
fiber (d) in NA ( r )
Unit X10-2m X10-3m X10-3m No unit

Mean=

(i) DETERMINATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE:

19
(ii) DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE.

LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

RESULTS

i. Numerical Aperture NA = ................................. No unit

ii.Acceptance Angle θmax = ............................. degree

20
 Expt. No: Date:

DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF THE GIVEN LASER SOURCE

AIM

To determine, Wavelength of the given laser source, using a LASER grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
(i) Laser source - Diode Laser Grating
(ii) Screen and Scale
(iii) Scale

FORMULA

(i) Wavelength of the laser source,

𝑆i𝑛 𝜃
λ= 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑁𝑛

Symbol Explanation Unit

Angle of Diffraction Degree
n Order of Diffraction -
N Number of lines per meter in the grating Lines /m
Wave length of laser light used Metre

Fig.1.Wavelength of LASER

21
PROCEDURE
CALCULATION OF THE WAVELENGTH OF THE LASER SOURCE
The laser source and the laser grating are mounted on separate stands as shown in fig.1. A fixed
distance (D) is kept between the laser grating and the screen. The laser source is switched ON and the beam
of laser is allowed to fall on the laser grating. The diffracted beams are collected on the screen. The
diffracted beams are in the form of spots as shown in fig.1.
From the figure the intensity of the irradiance is found to decrease from 0-th order to higher orders,
i.e., the first order is brighter than the second order and so on. The positions X1 , X2 , X3,……….X n of
the spots belongs to the first order , second order , third order etc., On either side of the central maximum
are marked on the screen and is noted. The experiment is repeated for various values of D and the
positions of the spots are noted. Then, by using the given equation the wavelength of the laser source can
be calculated and the mean is taken.

22
 TABLE 1: DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER SOURCE

Distance between grating and Screen (D) = cm

Number of Lines in grating per meter (N) = 1×105 lines/meter

Readings for the diffracted image

Leftside Rightside

Å
Order of diffraction (n)

𝒙
tan 𝜃1 =( )

Distance of different orders

Distanceof different orders

(xn) from the central spot

𝑫
(xn) from thecentral spot

𝒙 𝒙
tan 𝜃2 =(𝑫) 𝜃2 =tan-1 (𝑫)
S.No

𝒙
𝜃1 =tan-1 ( )
𝑫 Mean
(cm)

(cm)

1 1 X1= X1=

2 2 X2= X2=

3 3 X3= X3=

4 4 X4= X4=

λ= Å

CALCULATIONS:
(i) DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH

23
24
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

RESULTS

Wavelength of the laser source λ = ................................. Å

25
 Expt. No: Date:

DETERMINE THE SIZE OF LYCOPOIUM POWER USING LASER

AIM

To determine the Particle size of the given powder (Lycopoium) using LASER source.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
(i) Laser source
(ii) Lycopodium powder
(iii) Glass plate
(iv) Screen and Scale

FORMULA

The size of the particle,

𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑑= 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑋𝑛

Symbol Explanation Unit

n Order of Diffraction -
Wave length of laser light used Metre
D Distance between glass plate and the screen Metre
Distance between central bright spot and the nth ring Metre

Fig. 1. Size of the particle

26
 Fig. 2. Diffraction pattern

PROCEDURE
CALCULATION OF THE SIZE OF THE GIVEN PARTICLE
The laser source and the powder consist of micro sized particle are mounted on separate
stands as shown in fig.1. A fixed distance (D) is kept between the laser grating and the screen. The laser
source is switched ON and the beam of laser is allowed to fall on the laser grating. The diffracted beams
are collected on the screen. The diffracted beams are in the form of circular rings as shown in fig.1.
Now the laser grating is removed and the powder consist of micro sized particle is
introduced. The laser source is switched ON and the light is made to fall on the particle. The screen is
moved back and forth until the clear image of the spectrum is seen and the distance between the screen and
the particle (D) is noted. Due to diffraction of the laser light by the particle, different orders of spectrum are
obtained as shown in fig.2

27
 TABLE 2: PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION

λ = ................................... Å

Particle Size
Distance
Order of Distance between
between screen
S.No Diffraction central bright point
and glass plate
(n) and nth fringe xn (cm)
(D) cm
×10-6m

1
1
2

1
2
2

Mean =

CALCULATIONS:

i. DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE

28
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

RESULTS

The size of the particle d = ................................. ×10-6m

29
Expt. No: Date:
Determination of Planck’s Constant
Aim
Determination of Planck’s Constant by measuring radiation in a fixed spectral
range.
Apparatus
Power supply , lamp holder with bulb, wooden plank with a half meter scale, set of
three colors filters, two numbers of Digital Panel Meter (voltmeter and current meter) are
provided on the front panel.

Formula
Plank’s Constant h =
Where,

e - Charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs) - (c)

V1 & V2 - Stopping Potentials - (volts)
λ1 & λ2 - Wavelength of filters - (m)
Procedure
Make all the connections as shown in Figure 1. Voltmeter is internally connected to
the power supply. Connect positive socket of power supply to cathode (K) of photocell,
anode of photocell to positive terminal of micro ammeter, negative terminal of micro
ammeter to negative terminal of power supply.
Switch ON the power supply. Note that voltage should be 0V. Place lamp holder
and photocell on wooden plank facing each other and switch on the lamp, adjust its
position and distance such that micro ammeter gives sufficient current.
Insert any one of filter in window provider for the filters in photo cell assembly.
Note down the readings of the micro ammeter for V = 0 volts. Start increasing the
voltage in small steps and note down the corresponding values of micro ammeter. For a
particular value of cathode voltage the micro ammeter reading will be zero. This voltage
is stopping potential for that particular filter. Change the filter and repeat the process.
Draw a graph between the voltage and current for different filters. Repeat the procedure
for different position of lamp and note down the readings.

30
Fig. 1 Circuit to determine Planck’s constant

Fig. 2 Model Graph

31
 Table1 : Determination of stopping potentials

Filter - 1 Filter - 2 Filter - 3

Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current
(V) (A) (V) (A) (V) (A)

32
33
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

Result

The observed value of Planck’s constant = (Joule - Second)

34
Expt. No: Date:

Investigate the Variation of Photocurrent with the Intensity of Light

Aim
To Study the Variation of Photocurrent with Intensity of Light.

Apparatus Required
O Photocell
O Resistor (1 K ohm)
O Rheostat
O Electric Lamps
O Ammeter (0 - 10 mA)
O Regulated Power Supply
O Voltmeter (0 - 10 V)

Formula
The relation between intensity of illumination and distance is

I = constant / d2
Where, I - Current (mA)
d - Distance of Lamp from Photo Cell

I = 1 / d2
Since, constant = 1 (as there was no change in angle and relationship is linear).
The intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of distance.

Procedure
1. The connections are given in as shown in Fig. 1.
2. The light source is switched on and made to fall on the Photocell.
3. The corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted.
4. The procedure is repeated by keeping the light source at different
distances from the Photocell.
5. The theoretical explanation of variations of photoelectric current by
changing the intensity of light gives the following graph (Fig. 2).
6. This graph shows that there is a linear positive relationship between
current and inverse of square of distance. The inverse of square of
35
 distance is the measure

7. of intensity of light and it has been plotted on x-axis. On y-axis the readings of
deflections of ammeter have been showed which measure of photoelectric
current. The inverse of square of distance is the independent variable while
the deflection of Microammeter is the dependent variable.

Table 1 : To determine the Photocurrent with intensity of light at different distances

S. Distance of Voltmeter Ammeter 𝑑2

2
lamp from reading reading (cm ) 1
No.
photo cell (V) volt (I) mA 𝑑2
2
d (cm) (cm- )

36
 Fig. Circuit diagram of Photoelectric effect

(I Vs 1/d2)

Fig. Model Graph between Photoelectric Current and Inverse of Square of Distance

37
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

Result
The characteristics of Photocell were studied and the impact of change in intensity of light
on photoelectric current are plotted.

38
Expt. No: Date:

DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDCUTIVITYOF A BAD CONDUCTOR

– LEE’S DISC METHOD

Aim
To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor using Lee’s disc Method.

Apparatus Required
• Lee’s disc apparatus Steam boiler
• Two thermometers Vernier caliper
• Bad conductors Stop watch
• Heating oven

Formulae:

Thermal conductivity of a given bad conductor

M Mass of the Lee’s disc in Kg Kg

S Specific heat capacity of the disc JKg-1K-1

Rate of cooling at θ2
Kelvin/sec

y Thickness of the conductor 10-3m

h Thickness of the disc in m 10-3m
r Radius of the disc in m 10-2m
θ1 Steady temperature of steam in º C Kelvin
θ2 Steady temperature of disc in º C Kelvin

Description:

The apparatus consists of a metal slab A of copper which is suspended by means of three
strings from a stand. A hollow cylindrical vessel B with inlet and outlet for steam is placed above
A. The cardboard of same diameter whose thermal conductivity is required is placed between A
and B. The thermometers T1 and T2 are used to measure the temperatures of B and A
respectively.

39
Fig.1. Lee’s disc arrangement

Fig.2. Model Graph

40
 Determination of Rate of cooling

Steady temperature of steam chamber θ1 = o

C
Steady temperature of Lee’s disc θ2 = o
_ C

Temperature Time Taken

S.No
oC Kelvin Sec
1

3
4
5

6
7
8

9
10

11

12

To find the thickness (y) of the Bad conductor using screw gauge
LC = 0.01 X 10-3 m ZE = _______X 10 -3 m
ZC = X 10 -3 m
Pitch Scale Head Scale
Observed Reading Correct Reading
S. No. Reading Coincidence
OR = PSR +(HSC X LC) = OR ± ZC
(PSR) (HSC)
Unit X 10 -3 m div. X 10 -3 m X 10 -3 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean (y) = X 10-3 m

41
 Procedure:

The experimental arrangement is shown fig. steam is allowed to pass through the inlet of
the vessel B and it escapes out through the outlet. The temperatures θ1 and θ2 are noted when the
thermometers T1 and T2 show steady and constant readings. Now the cardboard is removed and
the vessel B is kept in direct contact with the metal slab A, till its temperature is about 5ºC above
the steady temperature θ2. A stop watch is started and time is noted for every 1ºC fall the
temperature until the metallic disc attains 5ºC below θ2. A graph between temperature and time is
drawn. Rate of cooling dθ/dt at θ2 is calculated from the graph.

Thickness and radius of metallic disc is measured using screw gauge and Vernier caliper
respectively. The thickness of bad conductor is found using screw gauge. Substituting the all
values in the given formula the thermal conductivity of bad conductor can be calculated.

To find the thickness (h) of the Metallic Disc using screw gauge
LC = 0.01 X 10-3 m ZE = ___ X 10 3 m
3
ZC = X 10 m
Pitch Scale Head Scale
Observed Reading Correct Reading
S. No. Reading Coincidence
OR = PSR +(HSC X LC) = OR ± ZC
(PSR) (HSC)
Unit X 10 -3 m div. X 10 -3 m X 10 -3 m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean (h) = X 10 3 m

To find the radius of the Circular metallic Disc

Circumference of the circular metallic disc = cm

r= ×10-2m

42
CALCULATION:

43
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

RESULT

The thermal conductivity of a bad conductor using Lee’s Disc K = Wm-1K-1

44
Expt. No: Date:

TORSIONAL PENDULUM - DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OF

INERTIA AND RIGIDITY MODULUS
Aim

To determine the moment of inertia of a given disc by Torsional oscillations and the
rigidity modulus of the material of the suspension wire.

Apparatus Required
 Metallic wire  Meter scale
 Torsional pendulum  Screw gauge
 Stop clock

Formula

Moment of inertia of the circular disc,

Kg m2

Rigidity modulus of the wire,

Nm-2

Symbol Explanation Unit

M Mass of the circular disc Kg

R Radius of the circular disc m

r Radius of the metallic wire m

L Length of the wire m

T Time period for various length s

45
 Fig. 1 Torsional pendulum

Theroy
The circular disc is rotated in a horizontal plane so that a twist is given to the wire which holds the
disc. Hence the various elements of the wire undergo shearing strains. The restoring couples, which tend
to restore the unstrained conditions, are called into action now when the disc is released it starts executing
torsional oscillations. The couple which acts on the disc produces in it an angular acceleration which is
proportional to the angular displacement and is always directed towards its mean position. Hence the
motion of the disc is a simple harmonic motion.

Procedure

One end of the long uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is clamped by a
vertical chuck. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached by another chuck. The length
of the suspension ’l’ fixed to a particular value (say 40 cm or 50 cm).The suspended disc is slightly twisted
so that it executes tensional oscillations. Care is taken to see that the disc oscillates without wobbling.
The first few oscillation is omitted by using the pointer then the time takes for 10 complete
oscillations are noted. Two trials are taken. The mean time period ’T’ is found.

The diameter of the wire is accurately measured at various places along its length with screw gauge.
From this, the radius of the wire is calculated. The moment of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus
of the wire are calculated using the given formals.

46
Table 1. To find L/T2

Length of Time for 10 oscillations Time

S. No Suspension Period T2 L/ T2
wire (L) Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean T

Unit X 10-2m Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec2 m/s2

Mean = X 10-2 m/s2

Table. 2. To find the radius of the wire by screw gauge

LC = 0.01 X10-3 m ZE = X10-3 m

ZC = … X 103 m
Pitch scale Head Scale Observed reading
Correct Reading
S. No. Reading Coincidence OR = PSR +
= OR ± ZC
(PSR) (HSC) (HSC X LC)

Unit X 10 -3 m div. X 10 -3 m X 10 -3 m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean = X 103 m

47
To find the radius of the Circular Metallic Disc

Circumference of the circular metallic disc = cm

R= ×10-2m

Calculation

Mean radius of the wire(r) = ............................ X10-3m

Mass of the circular disc = .............................. Kg
Radius of the circular disc (R) = ..................... X10-2m
Moment of inertia of the circular disc,

Kg m2

Rigidity modulus of the wire,

Nm-2

48
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

Result
1. Moment of inertia of the circular disc I = ................................……………………Kgm2
2. Rigidity modulus of the given wire n = ………………………………………….Nm-2

49
Expt. No: Date:

DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL OF AN

UNIFORM BEAM – NON-UNIFORM BENDING
Aim
To determine the young’s modulus of the material of a uniform bar by non uniform bending
method.

Apparatus Required

 Traveling microscope  Weight hanger with slotted weights

 Two knife edges  Pin
 Meter scale  Vernier caliper
 Screw gauge.

Principle
When a beam symmetrically supported on two knife edge is loaded at its centre, the bent beam
would not form an arc of circle. This type of bending is called non uniform bending. The maximum
elevation is produced at its mid point.

Formula
The Young’s Modulus of the material,

Symbol Explanation Unit

g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
l Distance between the two knife edges m
b Breadth of the beam m
d Thickness of the beam m
y Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load m
M Load applied Kg

50
 Fig.1. Young’s modulus – non uniform bending

PROCEDURE
The given beam is placed over the knife edges A and B at a particular distance say 80 cm or 70
cm in the same Horizontal level. The hanger is placed at the centre of the knife edge and a pin is also
fixed using wax as shown in fig 1.
The load in step of 50g will be loaded on the both sides of the beam using hanger and hence,
there will be the Corresponding elevation, which can be measured using the travelling Taking weight
hanger alone as the dead Load, the midpoint of the pin is focused by the microscope, ad is adjusted in
such a way that the tip of the pin Touches with the horizontal cross wire. The MSR & VSR reading on
the vertical scale are noted. Now the Weight is added in the steps of 50gm on hanger which is kept at
the centre of the beam. The reading to note Each time and the tip of the pin is made to this horizontal
cross wire and the reading are noted in the Microscope. By unloading the weight in steps of the 50gm
reading are tabulated in table. The thickness (d) and the breadth (b) of the beam are measured using the
screw gauge and vernier caliper respectively. Substituting the values in Equation, Young’s modulus can
be calculated.

51
 Table. 1 To find depression ‘y’

Distance between two knife edges (l) = X 10 -2 m

LC=0.001cm TR = MSR + (VSC X LC)

Microscope
Reading Depression

S. No. Load Loading Unloading Mean y

for ‘M’ kg

MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR

X 10 -2
Unit X 10 -3 kg X 10 -2 m div. X 10 -2 m m
div. X 10 -2 m X 10 -2 m X 10 -2 m

1. W

2.
W+50

3.
W+100

4.
W+150

5.
W+200

Mean depression (y) = X 102 m

52
 Table .2 To find the breadth (b) of the beam using vernier caliper

-2 2
LC = 0.01 x10 m ZE = X 10 m
2
ZC = X 10 m
Main Scale Vernier Scale Correct
Observed Reading
S. No. Reading Concidence Reading
OR = MSR+(VSC X LC)
(MSR) (VSC) = OR ± ZC
-2 -2 -2
Unit X 10 m div. X 10 m X 10 m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

-2
Mean (b) = x10 m

Table .3 To find the thickness (b) of the beam using screw gauge

-3
LC = 0.01 X 10 m ZE = _ X10-3m
3
ZC = X10 m
Pitch Scale Head Scale
Observed Reading Correct Reading
S. No. Reading Coincidence
OR = PSR +(HSC X LC) = OR ± ZC
(PSR) (HSC)
-3 -3 -3
Unit X 10 m div. X 10 m X 10 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3
Mean (d) = X 10 m

53
CALCULATION

Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 ms-2

Distance between the two knife edges l= m

Breadth of the beam b= m

Thickness of the beam d= m

Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load y= m
Load to calculate depression M= kg

The Young’s Modulus of the material,

54
55
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

Result
The young’s modulus of the given material of the beam (Y) = ...................................... Nm-2

56
Expt. No: Date:

DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

AIM

To determine the band gap energy of a semiconductor by studying the variation of

reverse saturation current of a point contact diode at any temperature.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

 Semiconductor diode
 Heating arrangement to heat the diode
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 Thermometer

PRINCIPLE
For a semiconductor diode at 0K the valence band is completely filled and the
conduction band is empty and it behaves as an insulator. If the temperature is increased, some of the
valence electrons gains thermal energy greater than the forbidden energy (Eg) and it moves to
conduction band, which constitutes some current to flow through the semiconductor diode.

FORMULA:

𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺𝑎𝑝 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸g = 0.198 × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑒

Wℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =

PROCEDURE
The connections are given as shown in figure. The semiconductor diode whose band gap
want to be determined and the thermometer are immersed in oil bath in such a way that the
thermometer is kept nearby diode. The input voltage is constant (say 3-5 V), the heating mantle is
switched on and oil bath is heated up to 100oC. The heating mantle is switched off when the
temperature of oil bath reached 100 oC. The The temperature of oil bath stabilized say at 95oC. The
temperature and current through diode are noted. Allow the oil to cool and take at least ten readings for
every fall of 5oC. Tabulate the readings and using the above formula calculate the band gap of the
semiconductor.

57
 A graph is plotted taking (1000/T) X axis and log Is along Y axis. A straight line obtained
as shown in model graph. By finding the slope of the straight line, the band gap energy can be
calculated using the given formula. The sample procedure can be repeated for various constant
voltages.

Fig: Band gap measurement setup

58
 TABLE
MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT FOR VARIOUS TEMPERATURES

Power Supply = -------------- Volts

Temperature in Temperature in
S.No 1000/T (K-1) Is (×10-6 Amp) Log Is (Amp)
°C (K)

10

Calculation:

59
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

RESULT
The Band gap energy of a given diode is = ----------------- eV.
60
Expt. No: Date:
Analyze the Type of a Given Semiconductor Material Based on its Hall Coefficient and
Charge Density Values

Aim
To determine the Hall voltage developed across the semiconducting material and calculate the Hall coefficient and
the carrier density of the given semiconducting material.

Apparatus
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus (which consist of
Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).
Formula
i. Hall coefficient of that material (RH)
R = VH t / (I*B) m3 C-1

Where, VH - Hall Voltage (Volt)

t - Thickness of the sample (metre)

I - Current (Amphere)
B - Magnetic Field (Tesla)

ii. Carrier density (n) = 1 / R e carriers/m

H
-3

Where, RH – Hall coefficient (m3 C-1)

e – Charge of the electron (1.6 x 10-19 C)

Procedure
O Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.
O Four probe is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two
solenoids.
O Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.
O Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A,and note
the corresponding Gauss meter readings.
O Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob ofconstant
current source towards minimum current.

Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant CurrentGenerator and
connect red wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus
O Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at themiddle
of the two solenoids.
O Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
O Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hallvoltage
VH. Repeat this step for different magnetic field B.
O Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
61
 O Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH the carrier concentration n using equationabove
equation.

Table : Measurement of Hall Coefficient (RH)

Magnetic Thickness Hall current Hall Voltage Hall coefficient

Trial
Field (B) (t) (I) (VH) (RH)
No.
(Tesla) metre mA mV (m3 C-1)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean (RH) =

Fig. 8.1 Hall effect Set-up

62
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

Result
i. Hall coefficient of the given semiconducting material (RH)

ii. Carrier concentration of the given semiconducting material (n)

= carriers / m-3

63
Expt. No: Date:
ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
Aim
1. To determine the velocity of ultrasonic wave in the medium of different liquids using
ultrasonic interferometer.
2. To determine the compressibility of the given liquid.

Apparatus Required

• Ultrasonic interferometer (High frequency generator, measuring cell)

• Given liquid.

Principle

High frequency generator, which excites the quartz crystal, generates the ultrasonic wave
in the experimental liquid. The liquid will now serving as an acoustical grating element. Hence,
when an ultrasonic wave passes through the ruling of gratings, successive maxima and minima
occur, satisfying the condition for diffraction.

Formulae

1. Wavelength of the ultrasonic waves

m

2. Velocity of ultrasonic wave in a given liquid

V=fλ ms-1

3. Compressibility of the given liquid

m2N-1
Symbol Explanation Unit
f Frequency of generator with excites the crystal Hz
d Distance moved in micrometer screw M
λ Wavelength of the ultrasonic wave M
n Number oscillations No unit
Density of the given liquid Kg/m3

64
 Fig. 1. Ultrasonic Interferometer

Fig.2. Distance moved by

The reflector Vs. Crystal current

65
Description

Ultrasonic Interferometer technique gives a very accurate value in the measurement of

sound velocity. The ultrasonic Interferometer consists of following parts are shown in fig
• High frequency generator,
• Measuring cell.

High Frequency Generator

It generates alternating field of variable frequencies. The frequency generator is used to
excite the quartz plate placed at the bottom of the measuring cell at its resonant frequency. The
excited quartz crystal generates ultrasonic waves in the experimental liquid in the measuring
cell.

Measuring Cell
Measuring cell shown in fig.1. has a double walled vessel with a provision to maintain
temperature constant. At the top of the cell a fine micrometer screw is fitted. With the help of the
screw, the reflector plate placed in a cell can be lowered or raised through a known distance. The
reflector and the quartz crystal (mounted at the bottom of the cell) are parallel to each other.
When the alternating field from the frequency generator is applied to the crystal, it gets into
resonant vibrations.

Procedure

The high frequency generator is switched on and the alternating field from the generator
is applied to the quartz crystal. The quartz crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves. The
ultrasonic wave passes through the liquid and gets reflected at the surface of the reflector plate.
If the distance between the reflector and crystal is exactly a whole multiple of the sound
wavelength, standing waves are formed within the medium. This results in the formation of
acoustics resonance and cause a change in the potential difference at the generator which excites
the crystal. Due to this, anode current of the generator becomes maximum .The change in the
anode current can be measured from the micrometer fitted with the frequency generator.
The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer screw such
that the anode current decreases from maximum and then increases up to a maximum. The
distance of separation between successive maximum or minimum in the anode current is equal
to half the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid.
By nothing the initial and final position of the micrometer for one complete oscillation
(maxima-minima-maxima), one can determine the distance moved by the parallel reflector as
shown Fig.2.

66
Table. 1 Calculation of the Wavelength ( ) of the ultrasonic in the liquid

Given Liquid: water Frequency of the generator= 2 X 106 HZ

TR = PSR (HSC x LC) LC=0.01mm

Number of Micrometer Reading

Maxima TR=PSR+
(HSC X LC)
d
S. No PSR HSC

Unit X 10-3m div. X 10-3m X 10-3m X 10-3m

1. n

2. n+5

3. n+10

4. n+15

5. n+20

6. n+25

7. n+30

8. n+35

9. n+40

10. n+45

Mean =....................... X 10-3m

67
 Thus ‘n’ number of successive maxima or minima is recorded for a distance d. The total
distance moved by the micrometer screw is given by

or

Wavelength m

From the value of λ, the velocity of the longitudinal ultrasonic waves is calculated using the
relation,
V= fλ, where f is the frequency of the generator which is used to excite the crystal. After
determining the velocity of the ultrasonic waves in liquid is calculated using the formula
K=1/v2ρ where ρ is the density of the liquid. The experiment is repeated for different liquids.

Calculation

Frequency of the generator f = 2 x 10 6 Hz

Wavelength of the ultrasonic waves λ= m
Density of the given liquid ρ = 1000 Kg m-3
Number of oscillations n=5

2. Velocity of ultrasonic wave in a given liquid

V=fλ ms-1

3. Compressibility of the given liquid,

m2N-1

68
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

Result
1. Velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the given liquid (v) = .......................................... m/s

2. Compressibility of the given liquid K = ..........................................m2/N

69
Expt. No: Date:
Determine the Indentation Hardness of the Material Using Vicker’s Hardness Method

Aim
To determine the indentation hardness of Mild steel, Brass and Aluminium using
Vickers hardness testing machine.

Apparatus Required
Vickers hardness Testing Machine

Formula
Vickers Hardness Number (HV) = 0.8191F/d2 GPa
Where,
F - The force applied to the diamond (Newton)
d - Average length of the diagonal in millimetres

Simulation Procedure
Step 1 : Type of the indenter used is diamond cone indenter with square based
pyramid shape.
Step 2 : The selected specimen placed on a supporting table and height is adjusted by
rotating hand wheel.
Step 3 : The load to applied on a specimen is set by adjusting the Knob.
Step 4 : The time up to which load has to be applied for the specimen is adjusted.
The load is applied for a period 10 to 15 seconds.
Step 5 : Apply the selected load by pressing the green button for 2 or 3 seconds until
the red light glows.
Step 6 : The image of impression will now clearly visible on the screen measure the
diagonal Length in X-direction and Y- direction.

Theory
The Vickers hardness test was developed by RL. Smith and Sandland in 1921
at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to brinell hardness test method to measure the
hardness of the material. The Vickers hardness test follows the brinell principle,

70
in that an indenter of definite shape is pressed into the material to be tested, then
the load is removed and the diagonals of the resulting indentation are measured from

these the hardness number is calculated by dividing the load by the surface area of indentation.

The Vickers test is easier than other hardness tests since the required
calculations are independent of the size of the indenter and the indenter can be
used for all materials irrespective of hardness.

Principle
The indenter is made of diamond and is in the form of a square-based
pyramid with an angle of 1360 between faces. The faces of diamond indenter are
highly polished, and the point is sharp. The loads applied vary from 1 to 120 kg;
the standard loads are 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 100, and 120 kg. For most hardness
testing, 50 kg is maximum.
The Vickers test can be used for all metals and is one of the widely used test
among hardness tests. The unit of hardness is known as the Vickers Pyramid
Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH). The hardness number can be
calculated by the load over the surface area of the indentation.

Implementation
The angle between the two faces of diamond indenter used in Vickers hardness
test is 136 and the faces makes an angle 22 with the horizontal. The HV number is
then determined by the ratio F/A, where F is the force applied to the diamond in
kilograms-force and A is the surface area of the indentation in square millimeters. A

can be determined by the formula. by eliminating the sine term we get,= d2 / 2 sin

(136 /2)|

A = d2 / 1.8544|

Where d is the average length of the diagonal in millimeters. Hence,

HV = F/A = (1.8544F/d2) kgf/mm2

Where F is in kgf and d is in millimeters.

The corresponding units of HV are then kilograms-force per square
millimeter (kgf/mm). To calculate Vickers hardness number using SI units we
71
must convert the force applied from kilogram-force to Newtons by multiplying by
9.80665 (standard gravity) and then dividing by 1000 to get the answer in GPa. This
will leads to the following equation that can be used to do any calculation directly.

HV = 0.1891(F/d2) GPa

Where F is in N and d is in millimeters.

Observation
Table 1 : Determination of Average Vickers hardness Number

Average Vickers
Load Average
diagonal Hardness
Trial Specimen Applie Vickers
length d Number
d (Kg) hardness
(mm) HV=
Number (HV)
0.8191F/d2
1.
Mild steel
2.

1.
Aluminum
2.

1.
Brass
2.

Fig. 1

72
Fig. 2

73
 LABORATORY PREPARATION 10

CIRCUIT CONNECTION & READINGS 10

CALCULATION WITH UNITS 10

RESULTS 5

VIVA 15

TOTAL 50

Result
Vickers hardness Number (HV) of i. Mild steel = GPa

ii. Aluminum = GPa

iii. Brass = GPa

74