CHAPTER 3: SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES

Unit of learning code: CON/CU/PL/CC/03/5/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Scientific Principles
3.1. Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit describes the competence in applying scientific principles. It involves applying
principles of: units of measurements, force, work, energy and power, friction, heat, acoustics,
pressure in fluids, mechanical properties of materials and electrical.
3.2. Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Apply principles of units of measurements

2. Apply principles of Force, work, energy and power
3. Apply principles of Friction
4. Apply principles of heat
5. Apply principles of acoustics
6. Apply principles of pressure in fluids
7. Apply mechanical properties of materials
8. Apply electrical principles

3.2.1. Learning Outcome 1: Apply principles of units of measurements

3.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit describes the competence in principles of units of measurements, identification and
their conversion.

3.2.2.2 Performance Standard

1.1 Units of measurements are identified based on task given

1.2 Units are converted based on standard conventions.

3.2.2.3 Information Sheet

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 Definitions of terms
 Base quantity - physical quantity chosen by convention and practical considerations
such that all other physical quantities can be expressed as algebraic combinations of
them
 Conversion factor- a ratio that expresses how many of one unit are equal to another unit
 Derived quantity- physical quantity defined using algebraic combinations of base
quantities
 Derived units- units that can be calculated using algebraic combinations of the
fundamental units
 Dimension- expression of the dependence of a physical quantity on the base quantities as
a product of powers of symbols representing the base quantities.
 English units - system of measurement used in the United States; includes units of
measure such as feet, gallons, and pounds
 Estimation- using prior experience and sound physical reasoning to arrive at a rough
idea of a quantity’s value
 Law- description, using concise language or a mathematical formula, of a generalized
pattern in nature supported by scientific evidence and repeated experiments
 Metric system- system in which values can be calculated in factors of 10 model
representation of something often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly
 Physics- science concerned with describing the interactions of energy, matter, space, and
time; especially interested in what fundamental mechanisms underlie every phenomenon
 Precision- the degree to which repeated measurements agree with each other second the
SI unit for time, abbreviated s
 SI units - the international system of units that scientists in most countries have agreed to
use; includes units such as meters, liters, and grams

Introduction to Measurement

Consider a plumber expected to measure the required length of pipe for a piece of work
and a carpet installer checking to see the length and width of a room. These are examples
of measurement.

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 Measurement is defined as the action of determining the size or amount of something.
This is usually done by using an acceptable measurement tool such as a scale rule. For
example, the carpet installer uses a tape measure as his choice of measurement tool to see
how long and wide a particular room is whereas the Plumber will use a scale rule is the
length of pipe required is less than 300mm long or a tape measure for lengths longer than
that.

When measuring weight, The Kilogram (Kg) is used. When measuring the size of a room,
feet are used. You can say that a room is 20 feet long, a box weighs 45 pounds, and your
computer screen measures 17 inches on its diagonal.
Systems of units are built up from a small number of base units which are defined by
accurate and precise measurements of conventionally chosen base quantities. Other units
are then derived as algebraic combinations of the base units
Two commonly used systems of units are English units and SI units. All scientists and
most of the other people in the world use SI, whereas some use English units.

 The SI base units are international system of units that scientists in most countries
have agreed to use. They include;
- Length – meter (m)
- Mass - kilogram(kg)
- time - second(s)
SI units are a metric system of units, meaning values can be calculated by factors of 10.
Metric prefixes may be used with metric units to scale the base units to sizes
appropriate for almost any application.

 English units – is a system of measurement used in the United States; includes units of
measurement such as feet, gallons, and pounds

1. Basic SI Units of Measurement

The International System of Units, or SI, is based on base units from which all other
measurement units are derived. These are:

Base Units

SI Base Units common to the Building Services Industry

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 SI base unit

Name Symbol Description

Base quantity

The metre is either divided or multiplied by 1000 for greater or

smaller units i.e multiplied by 1000 to become kilometres (km) or
divided by 1000 to become millimetres (mm). We do not use
Length Metre m
centimetres (cm) in the construction industry.

Mass is measured in kilograms. This is not weight, as weight is

measured in Newtons. The mass of an object refers to the amount
Mass Kilogram kg
of matter an object contains.

The second is the base unit of time. Derivatives of time are

measured in multiples of 60, ie. 60 seconds in a minute and 60
Time Second S
minutes in an hour.

Referred to as the amp, this is the unit of electrical current equal to

Electric current Ampere A one coulomb per second.

The kelvin is a unit of measure for temperature based upon an

Temperature Kelvin K absolute scale. Absolute 0 K is equal to -273oC.

The Pascal is the SI Unit of pressure. It is defined as 1 Newton per m

Pressure Pascals pa

2. Derived SI Units

We can derive many units from the seven SI base units. For example, we can use the base unit of
length to define a unit of volume, and the base units of mass and length to define a unit of
density.
Derived units are units that may be stated in terms of base units by means of mathematical
symbols of multiplication and division as shown below:

Derived Units

Examples of SI derived units expressed in terms of base units

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 SI derived unit

Derived Description
Name Symbol
Quantity
The m2 is derived from multiplying length and
Area square metre m2
width. It is 2-dimensional.
The m3 is derived from multiplying length, width
Volume cubic metre m3
and height. It is 3-dimensional.
The m/s is the distance travelled over time in a
Speed, velocity metre per second m/s
straight line and at a constant speed.
The m/s2 is the distance travelled over time that
metre per
Acceleration m/s2 includes speeding up, slowing down and
second squared
changing direction.

The kilogram per meter cubed (kg/m3) is the

standard unit of material density in the

Kilograms International System of Units (SI). Material

Density Kg/m3
per metre density is expressed directly in base SI units, and

cubed cannot be further reduced.

Capacity is measured in litres (l). A litre is a

Capacity Litre l
measurement of 1000 centimetres cubed (cm3).
The m2 is derived from multiplying length and
Area square metre m2
width. It is 2-dimensional.

Unit conversion
 Length
The standard unit of length in both the SI and original metric systems is the meter (m). One meter
is about 39.37 inches or 1.094 yards.
Longer distances are often reported/ represented in kilometers

1 km = 1000 m = 103 m

whereas shorter distances can be reported in centimeters or millimeters

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 1 cm = 0.01 m = 10−2 m

1 mm = 0.001 m = 10−3 m.

Most working drawings have measurement given in mm.

 Mass
The standard unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram (kg). A kilogram was originally
defined as the mass of a liter of water in a cube of water with an edge length of exactly 0.1
meter. One kilogram is about 2.2 pounds.
One gram (g) is exactly equal to 1/1000 or 10−3 kg.
Pipes laid below the ground floor level may collapse due to heavy loads if the load bearing
capacity is exceeded.

 Temperature

Temperature is an intensive property. The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). The
IUPAC convention is to use kelvin (all lowercase) for the word, K (uppercase) for the unit
symbol. Celsius degrees are the same magnitude as those of kelvin, but the two scales place
their zeros in different places.
Water freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C) and boils at 373.15 K (100 °C) by definition, and normal
human body temperature is approximately 310 K (37 °C).
It is important to use a given pipe material for the task its specified for. Pipes meant for cold
water supply should specifically be used for that task since they may fail if used to supply or
carry hot water since they have a smaller wall thickness.

 Time

The SI base unit of time is the second (s). Time intervals can be expressed with the
appropriate prefixes; for example;
3 microseconds = 0.000003 s = 3 × 10−6
5 mega seconds = 5,000,000 s = 5 × 106 s.
Alternatively, hours, days, and years can be used.

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When determining the capacity of a storage tank, it is important to ensure that the stored water is
enough to serve the occupants for a period of 24hours after the direct water supply is cut off or
being maintained.

(It is important to give practical examples of instances where these units of measurement are
applied in Plumbing to enhance the relevance of this learning outcome to the trainee)

3.2.2.4 Learning Activities

Practical activity

With the assistance of your trainer, measure the length of a given path.
Example measure the length of administration block to the main gate and indicate the length in;
a) Metres
b) Kilometres
c) Centimetres

Materials Required
 Measuring tape
 Markers
 Pencil
 Drafting book

3.2.2.5 Self-Assessment

1. Convert 35.9 kL to liters.

2. How many cubic centimeters are in 0.883 m3?

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3. A rectangular plot in a garden has the dimensions 36.7 cm by 128.8 cm. What is the area
of the garden plot in square meters? Express your answer in the proper number of
significant figures.

4. Suppose that you drive the 10.0 km from your Institute to home in 20.0 min. Calculate your
average speed
a) in kilometers per hour (km/h) and
b) in meters per second (m/s). (Note: Average speed is distance traveled divided by
time of travel.)
5. Convert 88.4 m/min to meters/second.

3.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Scale rule
 Pencils
 Eraser
 Drawing paper
 Drawing board
 T-square

3.2.2.7 References

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics:
Dynamics (8th ed.). Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of
Engineering Mechanics: Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction
to Physical Science (14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

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 3.2.3.1 Responses

1. Convert 35.9 kL to liters.

Solution

1 kL = 1,000 L.

2. How many cubic centimeters are in 0.883 m3?

Solution

3. A rectangular plot in a garden has the dimensions 36.7 cm by 128.8 cm. What is the
area of the garden plot in square meters? Express your answer in the proper
number of significant figures.

Solution

4. Suppose that you drive the 10.0 km from your Institute to home in 20.0 min. Calculate
your average speed.
a) in kilometers per hour (km/h) and
b) in meters per second (m/s). (Note: Average speed is distance traveled divided by
time of travel.)
Solution
average speed = distance/time
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 average speed= 10.0 km20.0 min=0.500 km min
average speed=0.500 kmmin×60 min1 h=30.0kmh.

5. Convert 88.4 m/min to meters/second.

Solution

3.2.2. Learning outcome 3: Apply principles of Friction

3.2.3.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit describes the competence in applying principles of friction and its application based on
scientific principles.

3.2.3.2. Performance Standard

1. Friction is defined and interpreted based on standard conventions

2. The advantages and disadvantages of friction are identified based on scientific principles
3. Simple problems on friction are solved based on task requirements

3.2.3.3. Information Sheet

Definitions of terms

 Friction is a force which opposes or tends to oppose the relative motion of two surfaces
in contact with each other.
 Coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of the force needed to overcome friction
 Viscosity this is the internal friction of a fluid
Force of friction equation

The formula that lets you calculate the friction force is:
F = μN

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 where:

 F is the force of friction, measured in Newtons;

 μ is the dimensionless coefficient of friction; and
 N is the normal force (perpendicular to the ground surface), expressed in Newtons.
How to find force of friction

1. Choose the normal force acting between the object and the ground. Let's assume a
normal force of 250 N.
2. Determine the friction coefficient. We can choose a coefficient of friction equal to 0.13.
3. Multiply these values by each other: (250 N) * 0.13 = 32.5 N.
4. You just found the force of friction! Perhaps you want to check what work it performs?
Types of friction.

 Static is between two surfaces when neither are moving (with respect to each other).
 Sliding is between two objects sliding over each other (oddly enough) - like when you
slide over a wooden floor in your socks.
 Rolling is between a surface and a rollable object (wheel, ball, etc.).
 Fluid friction is the friction between an object in movement and the medium it's
traveling through, e.g., a plane through the air or a fish through water
 Static friction acts when the object remains stationary. Imagine you try to pull a
heavy box. If we don't take friction into account, even the smallest force should cause
some acceleration of the box, according to Newton's second law. In reality, you need
to pull quite hard for the box to start moving because of the static friction force.
 Kinetic friction acts on a moving object or, in other words, on an object with nonzero
kinetic energy. If there were no kinetic friction, any object that you nudge (for
example, a toy car) would never stop moving, as, according to Newton's first law, no
force would act on it, so it would keep on going with a constant velocity.
How to measure the coefficient of friction

There are two easy methods of estimating the coefficient of friction: by measuring the angle
of movement and using a force gauge. The coefficient of friction is equal to tan(θ), where θ is
the angle from the horizontal where an object placed on top of another starts to move. For a
flat surface, you can pull an object across the surface with a force meter attached. Divide the
Newtons required to move the object by the object’s mass to get the coefficient of friction.
The SI unit of friction
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Like all forces, the unit for friction is the Newton, which is equal to 1 kg·m·s-2. In Imperial,
the force unit is the pound of force, lbf, 1 of which is roughly 4.45 N. The coefficient of
friction is dimensionless, and therefore has no units.

Laws of friction
It is difficult to perform experiments involving friction and thus the following statements
should therefore be taken merely as approximate descriptions: -
1. Friction is always parallel to the contact surface and in the opposite direction to the force
tending to produce or producing motion.
2. Friction depends on the nature of the surfaces and materials in contact with each other.
3. Sliding (kinetic) friction is less than static friction (friction before the body starts to
slide).
4. Kinetic friction is independent of speed.
5. Friction is independent of the area of contact.
6. Friction is proportional to the force pressing the two surfaces together.

Measuring frictional forces

We can relate weight of bodies in contact and the force between them. This relationship is
called coefficient of friction. Coefficient of friction as the ratio of the force needed to
overcome friction Ff to the perpendicular force between the surfaces Fn. Hence
µ = Ff / Fn

Examples
1. A box of mass 50 kg is dragged on a horizontal floor by means of a rope tied to its front.
If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor and the box is 0.30, what is the
force required to move the box at uniform speed?
Solution
Ff = µFn
Fn= weight = 50×10 = 500 N
Ff = 0.30 × 500 = 150 N

2. A block of metal with a mass of 20 kg requires a horizontal force of 50 N to pull it with

uniform velocity along a horizontal surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction between
the surface and the block. (take g = 10 m/s)
Solution
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 Since motion is uniform, the applied force is equal to the frictional force
Fn = normal reaction = weight = 20 ×10 = 200 N
Therefore, µ =Ff / Fn = 50/ 200 = 0.25.

Applications of friction
1. Match stick
2. Chewing food
3. Brakes
4. Motion of motor vehicles
5. Walking

(Plumbing Applications- Rotation of moving parts in different Plumbing machines- (Electric

Diestocks, Drills, Hydraulic Machines, During cutting of steel pipes)

Methods of reducing friction

1. Rollers
2. Ball bearings in vehicles and machines
3. Lubrication / oiling
4. Air cushioning in hovercrafts

(Give different Plumbing Examples)

Lubrication of moving parts-The electric Diestock is manufactured with its own oil drum that
keeps recycling and supplying the oil to the moving parts as it is in use.
To easen the cutting and threading processes, one is required to spray or oil the pipe with a
suitable lubricant to reduce friction between the pipe and the cutting/ threading tool.
Viscosity
Viscosity of a liquid decreases as temperature increases. When a body is released in a
viscous fluid it accelerates at first then soon attains a steady velocity called terminal
velocity. Terminal velocity is attained when F + U = mg where F is viscous force, U is
upthrust and mg is weight.

Advantages of friction:
1. Friction enables us to walk freely.
2. It helps to support ladder against wall.
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 3. It becomes possible to transfer one form of energy to another.
4. Objects can be piled up without slipping.
5. Breaks of vehicles work due to friction

Disadvantages of friction:

1. It always resists the motion, so extra energy is required to overcome it.

2. It causes wear and tear of machines.
3. It decreases the life expectancy of moving parts of vehicles.

4. Since friction is very useful in some cases while harmful in some cases, friction is
called a necessary evil.

3.2.3.4. Learning Activities

Practical activity

a) Pull a heavy box on a fairly flat surface and note down your findings.
b) Suggest ways you can make the box move easily and apply them

Materials and Supplies

 A relatively heavy box
 A flat surface/floor
 Rollers
 Rope

3.2.3.5. Self-Assessment

1. A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a rough floor. The coefficient of friction between
the floor and the box is 0.6. Calculate
2. What are the five advantages of friction?
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 3. Which four day-to-day operations do we apply friction?
4. A block of metal with a mass of 20 kg requires a horizontal force of 50 N to pull it with
uniform velocity along a horizontal surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction between
the surface and the block. (take g = 10 m/s)
5. Discuss any five types of friction.

3.2.3.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 A relatively heavy box

 A flat surface/floor
 Rollers
 Rope

3.2.3.7. Reference

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (8th
ed.). Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Engineering
Mechanics: Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction to Physical
Science (14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.
Trumbauer, L. (2004). What Is Friction? (Rookie Read-About Science: Physical Science:
Previous Editions) (Illustrated ed.). Children’s Press.

3.2.3.8. Model Answers

1. A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a rough floor. The coefficient of friction

between the floor and the box is 0.6. Calculate
a) The force required to just move the box
b) If a force of 200 N is applied the box with what acceleration will it move?

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2. What are the five advantages of friction?

a) Friction enables us to walk freely.

b) It helps to support ladder against wall.
c) It becomes possible to transfer one form of energy to another.
d) Objects can be piled up without slipping.
e) Breaks of vehicles work due to friction.
3. Which four day-to-day operations do we apply friction?
a) Match stick
b) Chewing food
c) Brakes
d) Motion of motor vehicles
e) Walking
4. A block of metal with a mass of 20 kg requires a horizontal force of 50 N to pull it
with uniform velocity along a horizontal surface. Calculate the coefficient of
friction between the surface and the block. (take g = 10 m/s)

Solution
Since motion is uniform, the applied force is equal to the frictional force
Fn = normal reaction = weight = 20 ×10 = 200 N
Therefore, µ =Ff / Fn = 50/ 200 = 0.25.
5. Discuss any five types of friction.

 Static is between two surfaces when neither are moving (with respect to each other).
 Sliding is between two objects sliding over each other (oddly enough) - like when you
slide over a wooden floor in your socks.
 Rolling is between a surface and a rollable object (wheel, ball, etc.).
 Fluid friction is the friction between an object in movement and the medium it's
traveling through, e.g., a plane through the air or a fish through water.
 Static friction acts when the object remains stationary
 Kinetic friction acts on a moving object or, in other words, on an object with nonzero
kinetic energy. If there were no kinetic friction, any object that you nudge (for
example, a toy car) would never stop moving, as, according to Newton's first law, no
force would act on it, so it would keep on going with a constant velocity.

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 3.2.3. Learning outcome 2: Apply principles of Force, work, energy and power

3.2.2.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit describes the competence in applying principles of force, work, energy and power based on
standard conventions. It also involves the various forms of energy and its conversion to other forms
and scientific calculations involving energy.

3.2.2.2. Performance Standard

1. Force, work, energy and power are defined based on standard conventions
2. Forms of energy are described based on the state of the matter
3. Energy is converted according to scientific principles
4. Simple calculations on work, energy and power are solved based on the task requirements

3.2.2.3. Information Sheet

Definitions of terms

 Work is said to be done when a body or object moves with the application of
external force.
 Power can be defined as the rate at which work is done i.e. energy converted.
 Energy is the ability to perform work
 A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction
with another object

Introduction to principles of Force, work, energy and power

Energy, force, heat and power are closely linked. It is almost impossible to have one
without the other.
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The first law of thermodynamics states that: ‘Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Energy is transferred from one form to another.’
The SI Units
 The unit of power - The watt is the SI unit for power. It is equivalent to one joule
per second (1 J/s) or in electrical units, one volt ampere (1 V·A) (DC circuits).
 The unit of heat - The Joule is unit of heat. 4.186 joule of heat energy (equals one
calorie) is required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 0oC to 1oC. This
is usually rounded up to 4.19j/g for calculation purposes.
 The Unit of energy – also the joule (see above)

.
1. Forms of energy.
a) Chemical energy: - this is found in foods, oils charcoal firewood etc.
b) Mechanical energy: - there are two types;
i. Potential energy – a body possesses potential energy due to its relative position or
state
ii. Kinetic energy – energy possessed by a body due to its motion i.e. wind, water
iii. Wave energy – wave energy may be produced by vibrating objects or particles i.e.
light, sound or tidal waves.
iv. Electrical energy – this is energy formed by conversion of other forms of energy i.e.
generators.
Transformation and conservation of energy
Any device that facilitates energy transformations is called transducer. Energy can be
transformed from one form to another i.e. mechanical – electrical – heat energy. The law of
conservation of energy states that “energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
transformed from one form to another”.

2. Work
Work is done when a force acts on a body and the body moves in the direction of the force.
Work done = force × distance moved by object
W=F×d
Work is measured in Nm. 1 Nm = 1 Joule (J)

Examples
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 1. Calculate the work done by a stone mason lifting a stone of mass 15 kg through a height
of 2.0 m. (take g=10N/kg)
Solution
Work done = force × distance
= (15× 10) × 2 = 300 Nm or 300 J
2. A girl of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of 12 steps. If each step is 30 cm high, calculate
the work done by the girl climbing the stairs.
Solution
Work done = force × distance
= (50× 10) × (12 ×30) ÷ 100 = 500 × 3.6 = 1,800 J
3. Power
Power is the time rate of doing work or the rate of energy conversion.
Power (P) = work done / time
P=W/t
The SI unit for power is the watt (W) or joules per second (J/s).
Examples
1. A person weighing 500 N takes 4 seconds to climb upstairs to a height of 3.0 m. what is
the average power in climbing up the height?
Solution
Power = work done / time = (force × distance) / time
= (500 ×3) / 4 = 375 W
4. Machines
A machine is any device that uses a force applied at one point to overcome a force at another
point. Force applied is called the effort while the resisting force overcome is called load.
Machines makes work easier or convenient to be done. Three quantities dealing with machines
are;-
a) Mechanical advantage (M.A.) - this is defined as the ratio of the load (L) to the effort
(E). It has no units.
M.A = load (L) / effort (E)
b) Velocity ratio – this is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance
moved by the load
V.R = distance moved by effort/ distance moved by the load
c) Efficiency – is obtained by dividing the work output by the work input and the getting
percentage
Efficiency = (work output/work input) × 100
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 = (M.A / V.R) × 100
= (work done on load / work done on effort) × 100
Examples
1. A machine; the load moves 2 m when the effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used
to raise a load of 60 N, what is the efficiency of the machine?
Solution
Efficiency = (M.A / V.R) × 100 M.A = load/effort =60/20 = 3
V.R =DE/ DL = 8/2 = 4
Efficiency = ¾ × 100 = 75%

Some simple machines

a) Levers – this is a simple machine whose operation relies on the principle of moments
b) Pulleys – this is a wheel with a grooved rim used for lifting heavy loads to high levels.
The can be used as a single fixed pulley, or as a block-and-tackle system.

These machines are used in the lifting of heavy equipment or materials on site.

Figure 101:Pulleys
M.A = Load/ Effort
V.R = no. of pulleys/ no. of strings
supporting the load
Example

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A block and tackle system has 3 pulleys in the upper fixed block and two in the lower moveable
block. What load can be lifted by an effort of 200 N if the efficiency of the machine is 60%?
Solution
V.R = total number of pulleys = 5
Efficiency = (M.A /V.R) × 100 = 60%
0.6 = M.A/ 5 =3, but M.A = Load/Effort
Therefore, load = 3 ×200 = 600 N
c) Wheel and axle – consists of a large wheel of big radius attached to an axle of smaller
radius.

Figure 102: Wheel and axle

V.R = R/r and M.A = R/r

Example
A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 280 N by a force of 40 N applied to the rim of
the wheel. If the radii of the wheel and axle are 70 cm and 5 cm respectively. Calculate
the M.A, V.R and efficiency.
Solution
M.A = 280 / 40 = 7
V.R = R/r = 70/5 = 14
Efficiency = (M.A/ V.R) × 100 = 7/14 × 100 = 50 %
d) Inclined plane: -
V.R = 1/ sin θ M.A = Load/ Effort

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Example
A car weighing 1,600 kg is lifted with a jack-screw of 11 mm pitch. If the handle is 28
cm from the screw, find the force applied.
Solution
Neglecting friction M.A = V.R
V.R = 2πr /P = M.A = L / E
1,600 / E = (2π × 0.28) / 0.011
E = (1,600 × 0.011 × 7) / 22×2×0.28 =10 N
e) Gears: - the wheel in which effort is applied is called the driver while the load
wheel is the driven wheel.
V.R = revolutions of driver wheel / revolutions of driven wheel
Or
V.R = no. of teeth in the driven wheel/ no. of teeth in the driving wheel

f) Pulley belts: -these are used in bicycles and other industrial machines
V.R = radius of the driven pulley / radius of the driving pulley

g) Hydraulic machines
V.R = R2 / r2 where R- radius of the load piston and r- radius of the effort piston
Example
The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 1.4 cm while that of the load piston is
7.0 cm. This machine is used to raise a load of 120 kg at a constant velocity through a
height of 2.5 cm. given that the machine is 80% efficient, calculate;
a) The effort needed
b) The energy wasted using the machine
Solution
a) V.R = R2 / r2 = (7×7) / 1.4 × 1.4 = 25
Efficiency = M.A / V.R = (80 /100) × 25 = 20
But M.A = Load / Effort = (120×10) / 20 = 60 N
b) Efficiency = work output / work input = work done on load (m g h) /80
= (120 × 10× 2.5) / work input
80 / 100 = 3,000 / work input
Work input = (3,000 × 100) /80 = 3,750 J
Energy wasted = work input – work output
= 3,750 – 3,000 = 750
255
 3.2.2.4. Learning Activities
Practical activity
Assemble a single fixed pulley system on a higher surface and safely lift various masses as
shown below.
Materials and Supplies needed for the practical activity
 Pulley
 Rope
 A convenient mass
 Nails
 Timber
 Claw hammer

Figure 103: Single fixed pulley

3.2.2.5. Self-Assessment

1. A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by 5 cm. How much work is done in
stretching this spring by 8.0 cm?
2. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is uniformly retarded by an application of brakes
and comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg.
Calculate;
a) The breaking force
b) The work done in bringing it to rest
c) Work done
3. A spring constant k = 100 Nm is stretched to a distance of 20 cm. calculate the work
done by the spring.

256
 4. A box of mass 500 kg is dragged along a level ground at a speed of 12 m/s. If the force
of friction between the box and floor is 1200 N. Calculate the power developed.
5. A man uses an inclined plane to lift a 50 kg load through a vertical height of 4.0 m. the
inclined plane makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined
plane is 72%, calculate;
a) The effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at a constant velocity.
b) The work done against friction in raising the load through the height of 4.0 m. (take
g= 10 N/kg)

3.2.2.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Pulley
 Rope
 A convenient mass
 Nails
 Timber
 Claw hammer

3.2.2.7. References

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (8th
ed.). Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Engineering
Mechanics: Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction to Physical
Science (14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.
3.2.2.8. Model Answers

257
1. A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by 5 cm. How much work is done in
stretching this spring by 8.0 cm?
Solution
A force of 7.5 produces an extension of 5.0 cm.
Hence 8.0 cm = (7.5 ×8)/ 5 = 12.0 N
Work done = ½ × force × extension
= ½ × 12.0 × 0.08 = 0.48 J
2. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is uniformly retarded by an application of
brakes and comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of
1,250 kg. Calculate;
a) The breaking force
b) The work done in bringing it to rest
c) Work done
Solution
F = ma and a = v – u/t
But 72 km/h = 20m/s
a = 0 -20/8 = - 2.5 m/s
Retardation = 2.5 m/s
Braking force F = 1,250 × 2.5
= 3,125 N
Work done = kinetic energy lost by the car
= ½ mv2 – ½ mu2
= ½ × 1250 × 02 – ½ × 1250 × 202
= - 2.5 × 105 J
3. A spring constant k = 100 Nm is stretched to a distance of 20 cm. calculate the work
done by the spring.
Solution
Work = ½ ks2
= ½ × 100 × 0.22
=2J
4. A box of mass 500 kg is dragged along a level ground at a speed of 12 m/s. If the
force of friction between the box and floor is 1200 N. Calculate the power
developed.
Solution
258
 Power = F v
= 2,000 × 12
= 24,000 W = 24 kW.
5. A man uses an inclined plane to lift a 50 kg load through a vertical height of 4.0 m.
the inclined plane makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal. If the efficiency of the
inclined plane is 72%, calculate;
a) The effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at a constant velocity.
b) The work done against friction in raising the load through the height of 4.0 m.
(take g= 10 N/kg)
Solution
a) V.R = 1 / sin C = 1/ sin 300 = 2 M.A = efficiency × V.R = (72/100)× 2 = 1.44
Effort = load (mg) / effort (50×10)/ 1.44 = 347.2 N

b) Work done against friction = work input – work output

Work output = m g h = 50×10×4 = 2,000 J
Work input = effort × distance moved by effort
347.2 × (4× sin 300) = 2,777.6 J
Therefore work done against friction = 2,777.6 – 2,000 = 777.6 J

3.2.4. Learning outcome 4: Apply principles of heat

3.2.4.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit describes the competence in applying principles of heat, methods of heat transfer, sources of
heat and their effects.

3.2.4.2. Performance Standard

1. Sources of heat are identified based on scientific principles
2. Effects of heat on matter is identified based on scientific principles
3. Methods of heat transfer are identified and interpreted based on scientific principles

3.2.4.3. Information Sheet

Definitions of terms

259
  Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available

 Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between systems or objects with
different temperatures

 Heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place

Basics of Heat Transfer

In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things:
temperature, and the flow of heat.

On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the kinetic energy of molecules. The
greater a material's temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent. Several
material properties serve to modulate the heat transferred between two regions at differing
temperatures.

Everything on Earth and in space is made of matter. Matter can exist in 3 states:

1. Liquid

2. Solid

3. Gas

Each of these states can be changed by the addition or removal of heat. For example, if
heat is applied to ice (solid), it becomes water (liquid) and if more heat is applied, the
water will evaporate to become steam (gas). These transitions will also work in reverse
when heat is taken away – steam to water to ice. Each of these phases is given a name:

 Ice (solid) to water (liquid) = melting

 Water (liquid) to steam (gas) = evaporation/vaporisation

 Steam (gas) back to a water (liquid) = condensation

 Water (liquid) to ice (solid) = (solidification)

Under certain conditions, it is possible to miss out certain states. For instance, ice under
controlled conditions will go straight from ice to a gas, completely missing out the
liquid water stage:

 Solid to gas = sublimation

260
  Gas to solid = deposition
Solids

The table shows some of the properties of solids:

Property Reason

Solids have a fixed shape and The particles cannot move from place
cannot to place
flow
The particles are close together
Solids cannot be compressed and have no space to move into
or squashed

Examples : Different Pipe materials (Galvanized Iron, Copper, P.V.C Plastic e.t.c.

Liquids

The table shows some of the properties of liquids:

Property Because

Liquids flow and take the shape The particles can move around each
of other
their container
The particles are close together
Liquids cannot be compressed and have no space to move into
or squashed

Examples Lubricating oil

Gases

The table shows some of the properties of gases:

Property Because

Gases flow and take the shape of

261
 their container
The particles can move quickly in any
Gases can be compressed
direction
or squashed

The particles are far apart and

can move into any space

Examples Carbon (iv) oxide gas -

used for fire fighting

262
 Difference between latent heat and sensible heat

Table 5: Latent heat vs sensible heat

Sensible heat Latent heat

When heat is directly applied to water, its Changes of state are also a result of heat added
temperature will rise until it reaches its but here, the added heat leads to a change in
boiling point. The resulting increase in the state without an increase in temperature.
heat of the water is known as sensible heat Latent heat does not affect the waters
because the application of heat has led to temperature.
hotter water:
Water @ 100oC to Steam at 100oC = a
Water @ 0oC to water @ 100oC = a change in state due to the application of heat.
change in temperature due to the
There is no change in temperature
application of heat.
The process is reversible.
There is no change of state.

Heat energy is needed to increase the temperature of an object. The amount of energy needed depends on
the mass of the object, the type of material it is made from, and the temperature increase.
Heat energy is also absorbed when substances melt or boil, but the temperature does not alter during a
change of state. The amount of energy needed to melt or boil something depends upon the mass of the
object and the type of material it is made from.

Figure 104: Heat phase Diagram

Methods of heat transfer

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
263
 Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three methods: conduction in solids, convection
of fluids (liquids or gases) and radiation through anything that will allow radiation to pass. The
method used to transfer heat is usually the one that is the most efficient.
Conduction

Conduction occurs when heat travels through a substance, the heat passing directly from one molecule
to another.

If a piece of copper tube is heated at one end, the heat will quickly be felt at the other end. This occurs
because kinetic energy in the form of heat is directly transferred from one copper atom to another
very quickly.

The same principle can be applied to the conduction of electricity, as good conductors of heat are
generally also good conductors of electricity.

The rate at which a material will conduct heat is known as the coefficient of thermal conductivity. It
is measured in W/m2K.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (∆𝑡) =𝑊

The table below shows the coefficient of thermal conductivity of some common materials.

Table 6: Thermal conductivity

Thermal Conductivity of Materials

Thermal
Material
Conductivity
W/m/K
Silver 406.0
Copper 397.0
Gold 317.0
Aluminum 225.0
Brass 109.0
Steel 50.2
Lead 34.7
Polyethylene HD 0.5

264
Wood 0.113

265
Convection
Convection occurs when heat is transferred through a fluid i.e. a gas or a liquid. Convection takes place
because the warm fluid is less dense than the cool fluid. As the lighter, warm fluid rises, it releases heat into
the surrounding environment. As this happens, the warm fluid loses its heat, becomes denser and falls by the
effect of gravity, to begin the process again.
In a hot water system, this is known as gravity circulation as hot water rises and cooler water moves down to
replace it, causing a circular motion.

Figure 105: Convection

Radiation
On Earth, we get the heat to warm our planet from the Sun. The Sun’s heat travels over 90,000,000 miles
through the cold vacuum of space to warm the Earth’s surface. The heat is felt because it travels
objects will transmit and receive heat in the form of thermal radiation (often called infrared radiation). The
hotter an object is the more thermal radiation it will emit.

Figure 106: Radiation

266
How SI units of energy, heat and power are Related and Derived

• Energy – Joules (J) - the SI unit of work or energy, equal to the work done by a force of one
newton when its point of application moves one metre in the direction of the force. It is
equivalent to one 3600th of a watt-hour.

• Specific Heat Capacity (kJ/kg/°C) – This is the amount of energy required (in joules or
kilojoules) to increase the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1°C. Water, for example, has
a SHC of 4.19 kJ/kg/°C. This means that it takes 4190joules of energy to raise the temperature
of 1kg of water by 1°C.

• Power – Watts (W) - The watt (abbreviated W) is the International System of Units standard
unit of power (or energy per unit time). It is the equivalent of one joule per second. The watt
is used to specify the rate at which energy is dispersed, or the rate at which electro-magnetic
energy is radiated, absorbed, or dissipated. The Watt can be used to describe electrical power
or heat power.

To recap, the S.I. units of measurement of energy, heat and power are:

 Energy The Joule (J)

 Heat The Joule (J)

 Power The Watt (W)

 Specific Heat Capacity kilojoules per kilogram per degree Celsius (kJ/kg/°C)

The Specific Heat Capacity of water is 4.19kJ/kg/OC

Calculations using the Specific Heat Capacity of Water

Example 1 - How many kilojoules would it take to heat 200 litres of water from
40°C to 80°C? The formula for this is:
𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑆𝐻𝐶 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Where:

L = litres
 t = temperature
difference SHC of water = 4.19

Therefore

200 𝑥 (80 – 40) 𝑥 4.19 = 𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑱

3.2.4.4. References

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (8th ed.).
Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Engineering Mechanics:
Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction to Physical Science
(14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

3.2.4.5.Model Answers
1. Discuss the three Methods of heat transfer
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
2. Calculate how many kilowatts it would take to raise the temperature of the 200 litres
water by 40°C assume that you require 200 litres of water at 80°C in 2 hours’ time:

2 x (60 x 60) = 7200

200 𝑥 (80 − 40) 𝑥 4.19 = 4.65 𝑘𝑊

 This shows that to increase the temperature of 200 litres of water from 40°C to 80°C in
2 hours would take 4.65 kW of heat.
3. Which are the three states of matter giving two properties for each.
• Liquid
• Solid
• Gas
4.How many hours would it take for 200 litres of water to be heated by 40°C using a 6kW of
power?
Water has a specific heat capacity of 4.19 kJ/kg/°C and that 1 W = 1 J/s. The formula for this
is:
𝑙 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑆𝐻𝐶
𝑘𝑊
Where:
L = litres
t = Temperature
kW = kilowatts
SHC = Specific Heat Capacity

Therefore:
200𝑥 40 𝑥 4.19 = 5586.666667 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

5. How many kilojoules would it take to heat 200 litres of water from 40°C to 80°C? The
formula for this is:
𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑆𝐻𝐶 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
temperature difference SHC of water = 4.19
200 𝑥 (80 – 40) 𝑥 4.19 = 𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑱.

3.2.5. Learning outcome 5: Apply principles of pressure in fluids

3.2.5.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit describes the competence in applying principles of pressure in fluids based on scientific laws. It also
involves simple scientific calculations for pressure in liquids.

3.2.5.2. Performance Standard

1. Density and variation of pressure is defined based on scientific principles

2. Laws are identified based on scientific principles
3. Simple calculations on pressure in liquids are performed based on scientific principles

3.2.5.3. Information Sheet

Definitions of terms

 Pressure - Physics defines pressure as force per unit area.

 Force - is the influence on a static object that causes the motion of the object to change. If the
object is subjected to force, it will begin to move.
 Flow rate- is the volume of fluid, which passes per unit time

INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as the force acting normally (perpendicularly) per unit area.

The SI units for pressure is newton per metre squared (N/m2). One Nm-2 is known as one Pascal(Pa).

Pressure = normal force / area or pressure = thrust / area. Another unit for measuring

pressure is the bar. 1 bar = 105 N/m2. 1millibar = 100 N/m2.

Calculating pressure

Example
 A rectangular brick of weight 10 N, measures 50 cm × 30 cm × 10 cm. calculate the values of the maximum
and minimum pressures which the block exert when resting on a horizontal table.

Solution

Area of the smallest face = 0.3 × 0.1 = 0.03 m2.

Area of the largest face = 0.5 × 0.3 = 0.15 m2.

Maximum pressure = 10 N / 0.03 = 3.3 × 102 N/m2.

Minimum pressure = 10 N / 0.15 = 67 N/m2.

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS.

The following formula is used to determine pressure in liquids.

Pressure = h ρ g, where h – height of the liquid, ρ – density and g – is force of gravity.

Example

A diver is 10 m below the surface of water in a dam. If the density of water is 1,000 kgm3 determine
the pressure due to the water on the diver. (Take g = 10 Nkg-1)

Solution

Pressure = h ρ g = 10 × 1000 × 10 = 100,000 Nm-2.

Ways of measurement of pressure in fluids

U-tube manometer

It is a transparent tube bent into U-shape. When a liquid is poured into a u-tube it settles at equal level
since pressure depends on height and they share the same bottom.
 Consider the following diagrams;

For the levels to differ the pressure P1 must be greater than P2, hence

P1 = P2 + hρg.

If P1 is the lung pressure, P0 is the atmospheric pressure, then if the difference is ‘h’ then lung
pressure can calculated as follows.

P1 = P0 + hρg.

Example

A man blows into one end of a U-tube containing water until the levels differ by 40.0 cm. if the
atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 N/m2 and the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, calculate his
lung pressure.

Solution

Lung pressure = atmospheric Pressure + liquid pressure

P1 = P0 + hρg. Hence P1 = (1.01 × 105) + (0.4 × 10 × 1000) = 1.05 × 105 N/m2.

Measuring pressure

1. Simple
mercury
barometer– it is
constructed using a
thick walled glass
tube of length 1 m and
is closed at one end.
Mercury is added
into the tube then
 inverted and dipped into a dish containing more mercury. The space above the mercury column is
called torricellian vacuum. The height ‘h’ (if it is at sea level) would be found to be 760 mm.
Atmospheric pressure can be calculated as,

P = ρ g h =>where ρ (mercury)- 1.36 × 104 kg/m3, g- 9.81 N/kg, h- 0.76 m.

Then P = (1.36 × 104) × 9.81 × 0.76 = 1.014 × 105 Pa.

This is the standard atmospheric pressure, sometimes called one atmosphere. It is approximately
one bar.

Figure 107:Mercury Barometer

2. Fortin barometer–this is a more accurate mercury barometer. The adjusting screw is adjusted first
to touch the mercury level in the leather bag.
3. Aneroid barometer– increase in pressure causes the box to contract, the movements are magnified
by the system of levers and is transmitted to the pointer by the fine chain and this causes the
pointer to move. The scale is suitably calibrated to read pressure. Since pressure falls or rises as
altitude falls or rises, the pointer can also be calibrated to read altitude.
Figure 108:Aneroid Barometer

Examples

The height of the mercury column in a barometer is found to be 67.0 cm at a certain place.
What would be the height of a water barometer at the same place? (densities of mercury- 1.36 ×
104 kg/m3 and water- 1.0 × 103 kg/m3).

Solution

Let the pressure due to water be h1 ρ1 g1 and that of water be h ρ g. Then

h1 ρ1 g1 = h ρ g. Hence h1 = (6.7 × 10-1) × (1.36 × 104) / 1.0 × 103 = 911.2 cm or 9.11 m.

Application of pressure in gases and liquids.

1. Rubber sucker– this is a shallow rubber cap. Before use it is moistened to get a good seal
then pressed firmly on a smooth surface so that the air inside is pushed out. The atmospheric
pressure will then hold it firmly against the surface as shown below. They are used by
printing machines to lift papers, lifting glass panes, heavy metal sheets etc.
2. Drinking straw– when a liquid is drawn using a straw air is sucked through the straw to the
lungs. This leaves the space in the straw partially evacuated. The atmospheric pressure pushing
down the liquid in the container becomes greater than the pressure inside the straw and this
forces the liquid into your mouth.
 3. The syringe– they work in the principle as the straw. They are used by the doctors in hospitals
for giving injections. Bicycle pump– it uses two valves, one in the pump (greasy leather) and the
other in the tire. When the handle is pushed in, the pressure inside the barrel becomes greater
than the one in the tire and this pushes air inside. The valve in the tire is made such that air is
locked inside once pumped.
4. The siphon– it is used to empty tanks which may not be easy to empty by pouring their contents
out. The tubing must be lowered below the base of the tank. The liquid flows out due to pressure
difference caused by the difference in height ( h ρ g).
5. Lift pump.
6. Force pump.
Applications of pressure in Plumbing Systems
Positioning of tanks at high levels
The use of pumps to pump water to the storage vessels because it is against gravity.
Flowrate

In plumbing and heating, the volumetric. The SI unit is m³/s: in other words, the volume of water
(in m3) that flows every second (s). However, since we know that 1m3 of water has a mass of
1000kg and that 1 kg of water is equal to 1 litre, then the flow rate can also

be represented in various other ways too:

 m3/s

 l/s

 kg/s

For example, if a tap discharges 0.3m3/s, then:

0.3m3/s= 300 𝑙𝑖 = 300𝑘𝑔

In this case, the flow rate could be quoted as 0.3m3/s or 300l/s or 300kg/s.

The Application of Pressure and Flow Rate Measurements

Pressure and flow rate are the key points that any plumbing system will be measured by. If the
flow rate or the pressure is poor, then this can be the result of poor design, poor installation or
 both. Good plumbing design and installation will deliver the desired pressure and flow rate for a
given specification. However, we must also be aware that too much pressure or too high a flow
rate can be detrimental as they can cause noise and erosion problems in pipework and fittings and
this may lead to breakdown or failure of the pipework or components.
Force

If the object is subjected to force, it will begin to move. Consider the following example:

A pipe is connected to a cistern at one end and a tap at the other. The cistern is situated in the
roof space and the tap is in the bathroom. While the tap is closed, the water can be said to be at
rest because it is not moving. When the tap is opened, the water moves from the cistern, down
the pipe and out of the tap. The water is being acted upon by the force of gravity causing it to
move. We can calculate the amount of force acting downwards on the cistern that causes the
water to flow.

The cistern contains 100 litres of water. Since 1 litre = 1 kg, then the mass of the cistern
is 100kg. Therefore:
𝐾𝑔 𝑥 9.81 = 𝑁 100 𝑥 9.81 = 981𝑁
So, the force acting on the water is 981 N.

Force, however, does not give the pressure of the water at the tap. Force only gives an indication of
the gravitational pull downwards on the water. Water pressure is calculated slightly differently and
 this will be discussed in Part C, a little later in the unit.

Figure 109: Force in Water

Pressure

The weight of, say, a cistern sitting on a platform in a roof space is measured in N/m2 or Newtons
per square metre. If the cistern was of equal dimensions (length, width and height), then the weight
being exerted onto the platform would be the same irrespective of whether the cistern was on its
bottom, side or end.

If the cistern has unequal dimensions for the length, width and height, then different pressures
will be exerted depending on which of the sides is face down.

Example:
A cistern measuring 0.9m long x 0.8m wide x 0.7m high is to be installed on a platform in a roof space.
What pressure would it exert on the platform if:

 The cistern was placed on its bottom (length x width)

 The cistern was placed on its side (length x height)

 The cistern was placed on its end (width x height)

Before we can attempt these calculations, we must first determine the mass of the cistern in kg.
The formula for this is:

Mass = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚Y 0.9 𝑥 0.8 𝑥 0.7

= 0.504𝑚Y
Then, we must convert the volume into mass of water. To do this we must multiply the volume by
1000 to convert the mass into litres.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 1000 = 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 0.504 𝑥 1000 = 504 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
Since 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg, then:
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘𝑔

504 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 504 𝑘𝑔

From an earlier calculation we know that:

So:
𝐾𝑔 𝑥 9.81 = 𝑁

504 𝑥 9.81 = 4944.24 𝑁

Therefore, the cistern has a force of 4494.24 N

The formula for finding the pressure exerted is:

Pressure = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ÷ 𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

 Area of the bottom of the cistern:

0.9 𝑥 0.8 = 0.72𝑚'

4944.24 ÷ 0.72 = 6867𝑁 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

 Area of the side of the cistern:

0.9 𝑥 0.7 = 0.63𝑚'

4944.24 ÷ 0.63 = 7848𝑁 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

 Area of the end of the cistern:

0.8 𝑥 0.7 = 0.56𝑚'

4944.24 ÷ 0.56 = 8829𝑁 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

From these calculations we can see that the greater the surface area for a known mass of water,
then the less force is exerted by the mass on to the platform. This is very important when we are
deciding on where to place large cisterns that will contain a lot of water. The greater area we can
present to the platform, the better the spread of the weight across the platform, creating less stress
on the structure.
Water Pressure

Water pressure can be measured when the water is flowing and when it is not flowing. These
methods are known as:

1. Static pressure (head) – Water that is not flowing

2. Dynamic pressure – Water that is flowing

3. Static pressure (head) – Water that is not flowing

The image shows a cistern full of water with a pipe connected to a tap. It is the distance between
the cistern and the tap (measured from the bottom of the cistern to the outlet of the tap) that
creates the water pressure. It is measured in Pascals (pa). This is known as the ‘static head’ or
‘head of water’. Every metre of height (or head) between the two increases the water pressure by
10 Kpa (kilopascals):

As we have seen previously, water pressure is also measured in bar and psi.

methods are known as:

Figure 110: Demonstration of water pressure

The image shows a cistern full of water with a pipe connected to a tap. It is the distance between
the cistern and the tap (measured from the bottom of the cistern to the outlet of the tap) that
creates the water pressure. It is measured in Pascals (pa). This is known as the ‘static head’ or
‘head of water’. Every metre of height (or head) between the two increases the water pressure
by 10 Kpa (kilopascals):

As we have seen previously, water pressure is also measured in bar and psi.

1𝑚 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 10𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 0.1 𝑏𝑎𝑟

So:
10𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 100 𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟

Dynamic Pressure – Water that is Flowing

Dynamic pressure is also known as working pressure. It is the pressure of the water when it is
flowing. This will generally be less than the static pressure because it is affected by other factors:

If the static pressure of the water is increased, then the effect would be that the flow rate of the
water and is velocity would also increase.
The relationship between velocity, pressure and flow rate in systems
 Increasing the static water pressure will increase the velocity of the water, and therefore
the flow rate, because the water is flowing with more force through the pipe.

 Decreasing the static pressure will also decrease the water velocity and therefore reduce
the flow rate.

 Decreasing the pipe size will reduce the flow rate and increase the velocity because of
the Bernoulli Effect

The Bernoulli effect

 The Bernoulli Effect describes the relationship between flow velocity and pressure of a fluid,
i.e. water. It states that when the water passes through a reduction in pipe size, then the velocity of
horizontal flow will increase and the pressure will decrease.
This effect was discovered by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738.

Figure 111: The Bernoulli effect

If the water is moving uniformly through the pipe, then the only forces acting on the water are its
own weight and the static pressure of the water itself. If the pipe reduces in size, the water must
speed up, because the same amount of water is trying to flow through a smaller space. The only
way the water will move faster is if the pressure behind the fluid is greater than the pressure in
front. Thus, the pressure must decrease as velocity increases.

Increasing the pipe size has a reverse Bernoulli Effect and this increases the pressure and reduces the
velocity.

Reasons why pipework restricts the flow of liquids and gases

The material of the pipe

Different materials offer different resistance to the flow of water. Copper tubes and plastics are
smooth internally and give little resistance to the flow of water. Low Carbon Steel, by contrast,
is very rough internally and offers a greater resistance. This in turn decreases the pressure.
Changes of direction

Elbows, bends and the junction of tee fittings also offer resistance to flow and this too will reduce
the pressure. An elbow, for example, has the same resistance as around 0.5m of pipe (0.3m of
 pipe if machine made bends are used). So if the pipe run has 6 elbows (or 6 changes of direction),
this is equivalent to an extra 3m of pipe.

Length of pipe run

Again, the greater the length of pipe, the more resistance is encountered. This will effectively
reduce the pressure and the flow rate of both water and gases
Pipe size

The bigger the pipe, the greater the volume of water or gases.
Restrictions such as valves and stop taps

These reduce both pressure and flow rate because they offer resistance to smooth water flow.
Reductions in pipe size

A pipe size reduction reduces the pressure and the flow rate BUT increases the velocity. It is known
as the Bernoulli Effect.
Roughness of material surface

The rougher the pipe material, the greater the resistance to flow.
Principles of a Siphon

The principle of a siphon is to move water from a high place to a low place using only
atmospheric pressure and the cohesive properties of water.

3.2.5.4. Learning Activities

Practical activity

a) Assemble a water closet with a siphonic flush, Test the WC and note the pressure
application.

Materials and Supplies

 A complete WC
  Caulk
 Safety gear
 Adjustable spanner
 Water hose

5.1.1.4.1. Self-Assessment
1. Discuss the five factors why pipework restricts the flow of liquids and gases
2. A man of mass 84 kg stands upright on a floor. If the area of contact of his shoes and the floor is
420 cm2, determine the average pressure he exerts on the floor. (Take g =10 N/Kg)
3. The density of mercury is 13,600 kgm-3. Determine the liquid pressure at a point 76 cm below the
surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg-1)

4. The height of the mercury column in a barometer is found to be 67.0 cm at a certain place. What
would be the height of a water barometer at the same place? (Densities of mercury and water are
1.36 × 104 kg/m3 and 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 respectively.)
5. Which three types of water pressure are you familiar with

3.2.5.5. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 A complete WC
 Caulk
 Safety gear
 Adjustable spanner
 Water hose

3.2.5.6. References

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (8th ed.).
Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Engineering Mechanics:
Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction to Physical Science
(14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

3.2.5.7. Model Answers

1. Discuss the five factors why pipework restricts the flow of liquids and gases
The material of the pipe

Different materials offer different resistance to the flow of water. Copper tubes and
plastics are smooth internally and give little resistance to the flow of water.
Changes of direction

Elbows, bends and the junction of tee fittings also offer resistance to flow and this too
will reduce the pressure.
Length of pipe run

The greater the length of pipe, the more resistance is encountered. This will effectively
reduce the pressure and the flow rate of both water and gases
Pipe size

The bigger the pipe, the greater the volume of water or gases.
Restrictions such as valves and stop taps

These reduce both pressure and flow rate because they offer resistance to smooth water
flow.
Reductions in pipe size
 A pipe size reduction reduces the pressure and the flow rate BUT increases the velocity. It
is known as the Bernoulli Effect.

2. A man of mass 84 kg stands upright on a floor. If the area of contact of his shoes and
the floor is 420 cm2, determine the average pressure he exerts on the floor. (Take g =10
N/Kg)

Solution

Pressure = force / area = 840 / 0.042 = 20,000 Nm-2.

3. The density of mercury is 13,600 kgm-3. Determine the liquid pressure at a point 76
cm below the surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg-1)

Solution

Pressure = h ρ g = 0.76 × 13,600 × 10 = 103,360 Nm-2.

4. The height of the mercury column in a barometer is found to be 67.0 cm at a certain

place. What would be the height of a water barometer at the same place? (Densities
of mercury and water are 1.36 × 104 kg/m3 and 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 respectively.)

Solution

Let the pressure due to water be h1ρ1g1 = h ρ g, hence;

h1 = h ρ / ρ1= (6.7 × 10-1) × (1.36 × 104) = 911.2 cm or 9.11 m.

5. Which three types of water pressure are you familiar with

 Static pressure (head) – Water that is not flowing

 Dynamic pressure – Water that is flowing

 Static pressure (head) – Water that is not flowing

 3.2.6. Learning outcome 6: Apply principles of acoustic

3.2.6.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit describes the competence in applying principles of sound and their effects on the surroundings. It
also lays emphasis on the effective methods of sound proofing and insulation.

3.2.6.2. Performance Standard

1. Sources of sound are identified based on scientific principles

2. Effects of sound on surrounding areas is identified based on scientific principles
3. Methods of sound insulation are identified and interpreted based on scientific principles

3.2.6.3. Information Sheet

Introduction

The main application of acoustics is to make the music or speech sound as good as possible. It is
achieved by reducing the sound barriers and increasing the factors that help in proper transmission of
sound waves. Initially, acoustics was used only in industries which are based on sound like an
auditorium, theatre but today, the application of acoustics has spread to many fields like medicine,
warfare, architectural industries, etc.
Definitions of terms

 Acoustics - the science that deals with the study of sound and its production, transmission, and
effects.
 Acoustician- a scientist or researcher who studies acoustics
 Acoustic energy – is the disturbance of energy which passes through matter in the form of a
wave.
 Transduction - the process in which some other form of energy is converted into sonic energy
producing a sound wave
 decibel (dB) – Is the unit of measuring the amplitude of sound. The more amplitude a sound
has, the louder it is.
Sound is created by vibration in an elastic medium such as air, water, and solids such as building
materials. Sound travels outward through air molecules at a speed of about 1130 feet per second, quite
slow in relation to the speed of light, which is about 186,000 miles per second. The vibration of the air
particles in a sound wave sets the eardrums in motion. Sound is a series of pressure variations in air that
take the form of periodic compressions and rarefactions. Sound travelling in air exhibits a longitudinal
wave motion.

Figure 112:Vibration of Particle in Air.

 The number of complete to-and-fro vibrations that the source makes in one second is called the
frequency of vibration.
 The time required for one complete vibration cycle is called the period. Consequently, the
reciprocal of frequency is period.
 The greater the number of complete cycles, the higher the frequency. Frequency is measured in
hertz,
 which represents cycles per second.
 Wavelength is the distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration. The
relationship between wavelength, frequency, and velocity (or speed) of sound is expressed as:

λ= c/f

where λ = wavelength, c = velocity of sound in feet per second, and f = frequency of the sound in hertz.
Low-frequency sounds are characterized by long wavelengths and high frequency sounds are
characterized by short wavelengths. While sound travels relatively slew in air, it may travel as fast as
16,000 feet per second along steel pipes and duct walls or through other building materials. It is
therefore crucial to block or isolate paths where sound energy can travel through building materials to
sensitive areas, even great distances away, where it can be regenerated as airborne sound.

Acoustic Energy

In other words, it is the energy concerning the mechanical vibrations from its components is called
Acoustic Energy. Any acoustic event has the following stages.

 Cause or Generating Mechanism

 Acoustic wave propagation
 Reception Effect

Sound waves carry energy throughout the propagating medium. The acoustic wave equation is the
fundamental equation that describes sound wave propagation. Wave propagation is the key process in
any of the acoustic event. Sound propagates in liquids as a pressure wave and in solids as longitudinal
or transverse waves.

Figure 113:Sub-disciplines of Acoustics

TYPES OF ACOUSTICS

1. Environmental Noise

Environmental Acoustics is concerned with vibration and noise caused by roadways. Railways, aircraft
and general activities that are related to the environment. The main goal of these is to reduce vibration
and noise that affects the environment.

2. Ultrasounds

Ultrasounds are the sounds with a frequency greater than the human audible limit. However, there is no
difference in physical properties when compared to normal sound. Ultrasound is used in many fields.
Ultrasonic devices are used in measuring distances and in detecting objects. Ultrasound imaging is used
in physics.

3. Infrasounds

Infrasounds are the sounds with a frequency of less than 20 Hz. The study of such sounds is called
infrasonics. Applications include detection of petrol formation under the earth and the possibility of
earthquakes.

4. Vibration and Dynamics

It is the study of how mechanical systems vibrate and interact with their environment. Applications
include Vibration control which helps to protect a building from earthquakes and ground vibrations
used in railways.

PRINCIPLES OF ACOUSTICS
In order to improve acoustic performance there are a number of items that can be considered.

1. The Mass Law. Essentially one of the most effective ways in enhancing acoustic performance
on a frontage is to increase the mass or weight of its main surface components. Going by the
Mass Law, for every doubling of weight of a material, it equates to a 6dB improvement.
 Therefore, a 12mm thick glass will give a 6dB improvement in performance, over a 6mm
thick glass.

2. Separating the elements in a front build up. The separating of the elements disrupts the
pattern of the sound waves as they pass through the front and makes it harder for them to
reach the inside surface. Including different materials in the frontage build up can be used as
a method for controlling sound. Different materials will absorb and block different sounds, so
a variety of materials can work together to achieve the required result.

3. The glass specifications themselves, by using laminated glass, especially one with an acoustic
interlayer, you can often achieve the marginal gains that are often required.

4. When using double glazed units on a project, consider using different thicknesses /
compositions of glass for the inner and outer panes, as the different thicknesses will resonate
at different frequencies.

SOUND INSULATION

Sound insulation relates to the total ability of a building element or building structure to lower the sound
transmission through it. Two types of sound insulation might be referred to – airborne sound insulation
and impact sound insulation. It’s crucial to keep in mind that the weakest link in the construction has a
large impact on the overall sound insulation.

The level of sound insulation relies on the following general principles:

 flexibility/rigidity
 efficiency
 mass
 isolation.

The efficiency of each strategy of insulation can vary with the kind of sound, however in the majority of
constructions all the principles of insulation matter.

 Mass
For example, the typical SRI of a brick wall increases from 45 dB to 50 dB when the thickness is
increased from 102.5 mm to 215 mm. This doubling of mass does not need to be achieved by a doubling
of thickness as the mass of a wall for sound insulation purposes is specified by its surface density
determined in kilograms per square metre (rather than per cubic metre). Concrete blocks of different
densities can produce the very same surface area density by differing the densities of the blocks.

 Resonance.

The Mass Law states that the sound insulation of a single-leaf partition has a linear relationship with the
surface density (mass per system area) of the partition, and increases with the frequency of the sound.

Windows and doors are necessary parts of a building however a knowledge of the uniformity concept
can prevent effort being lost on the insulation of the wrong locations. To enhance the insulation of a
composite structure the component with the most affordable insulation must be improved first off.
Walls dealing with loud roads need to consist of the minimum of windows and doors, and they must be
well insulated.

Any doubling of frequency is a change of one octave. For example, a brick wall provides about 10 dB
more insulation against 400 Hz sounds than versus 100 Hz noises. This modification, from 100 to 200
Hz and after that 200 to 400 Hz, is a rise of two octaves.Sound insulation increases by roughly 5 dB
whenever the mass is doubled.

For increasing sound insulation typically involve increasing the thickness of masonry, plaster and glass.
Where a construction does not obey the Mass Law it is due to the fact that other factors such as
airtightness, stiffness and isolation have an effect.

 Efficiency.

Single-leaf construction includes composite construction such as plastered brickwork, as long as the
layers are bonded together. Theory predicts an insulation increase of 6 dB for each doubling of mass,
however for practical constructions the following working rule is preferable.

Typical air gaps:

 - Wall– floor gaps.
- Gaps around doors.
- Poor window seals.
- Unsealed pipe runs.
- Unsealed cable runs.
- Permeable blockwork.

 Isolation.

Loss of insulation by resonance occurs if the event sound waves have the exact same frequency as the
natural frequency of the partition. The increased vibrations that take place in the structure are handed
down to the air therefore the insulation is reduced. Resonant frequencies are usually low and probably
to trigger problem in the air areas of cavity construction.

 Airtightness.

The overall sound insulation of a construction is considerably reduced by small locations of poor
insulation. An unsealed door occupying 25 per cent of the area of a half-brick wall lowers the average
sound insulation of that wall from around 45 dB to 23 dB. The final sound insulation is affected by
relative locations but is always closer to the insulation of the poorer part than to the better component.

The effectiveness of sound insulation depends upon frequency and the Mass Law likewise predicts the
list below impact on frequency.

 Flexibility

Heavyweight structures with high mass transmit less sound energy than lightweight structures. The high
density of heavyweight materials restricts the size of the sound vibrations inside the material so that the
final face of the structure, such as the inside wall of a room, vibrates with less movement than for a
light-weight material.

Flexible (non-stiff) materials, integrated with a high mass, are best for high sound insulation. Flexibility
is not usually a preferable structural property in a wall or a floor.
3.2.6.4. Learning Activities
Practical activity

- Tie a 4foot piece of string to a table leg.

- Pull it tight and pluck it.
- Repeat this with a different kind of string.
Materials and Supplies

 3 pieces of string, each 4 feet long (different kinds)

 2 large paper clips
 Paper towels

3.2.6.5. Self-Assessment

1. What do you understand with the following terms;

a) Frequency
b) Period
c) Wavelength
2. Discuss the crucial factors considered when carrying out insulation of a given room
3. In your own understanding, highlight the five types of acoustics and give an application for
each.
4. Which are the three stages for the generation of acoustic Energy.

5. Briefly discuss the principles of acoustics

3.2.6.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 3 pieces of string, each 4 feet long (different kinds)

 2 large paper clips
 Paper towels
 3.2.6.7. References

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (8th ed.).
Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Engineering Mechanics:
Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction to Physical Science
(14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

3.2.6.8. Response

1. What do you understand with the following terms;

a) Frequency - The number of complete to-and-fro vibrations that the source makes in
one second
b) Period - the time required for one complete vibration cycle is called the. Consequently, the
reciprocal of frequency is period.
c) Wavelength -is the distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration
2. Discuss the crucial factors considered when carrying out insulation of a given room

 flexibility/rigidity
 efficiency
 mass
 isolation.

3. In your own understanding, highlight the five types of acoustics and give an application for
each.

i. Environmental Noise
 Environmental Acoustics is concerned with vibration and noise caused by
roadways. Railways, aircraft and general activities that are related to the
environment.

ii. Musical Acoustics

Musical acoustics is concerned with the study of physics of music i.e., how sounds
are used to make music. Areas of study include human voice, musical instruments,
and music therapy.

iii. Ultrasounds

Ultrasounds are the sounds with a frequency greater than the human audible limit..
Ultrasound is used in many fields. Ultrasonic devices are used in measuring
distances and in detecting object

iv. Infrasounds

Infrasounds are the sounds with a frequency of less than 20 Hz. The study of such
sounds is called infrasonics. Applications include detection of petrol formation
under the earth and the possibility of earthquakes.

v. Vibration and Dynamics

It is the study of how mechanical systems vibrate and interact with their
environment. Applications include Vibration control which helps to protect a
building from earthquakes and ground vibrations used in railways.

4. Which are the three stages for the generation of acoustic Energy.

 Cause or Generating Mechanism

 Acoustic wave propagation
 Reception Effect

5. Briefly discuss the principles of acoustics

 i. The Mass Law. Essentially one of the most effective ways in enhancing acoustic
performance on a frontage is to increase the mass or weight of its main surface
components. Going by the Mass Law, for every doubling of weight of a material, it
equates to a 6dB improvement.
ii. Separating the elements in a front build up. The separating of the elements disrupts
the pattern of the sound waves as they pass through the front and makes it harder for
them to reach the inside surface. Including different materials in the frontage build up
can be used as a method for controlling sound. Different materials will absorb and
block different sounds, so a variety of materials can work together to achieve the
required result.

iii. The glass specifications themselves, by using laminated glass, especially one with an
acoustic interlayer, you can often achieve the marginal gains that are often required.

iv. When using double glazed units on a project, consider using different thicknesses /
compositions of glass for the inner and outer panes, as the different thicknesses will
resonate at different frequencies.

3.2.7. Learning outcome 7: Apply mechanical properties of materials

3.2.7.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit describes the competence in applying principles of mechanical properties for materials and the
respective tests involved for various materials to ascertain their mechanical properties.

3.2.7.2. Performance Standard

1.Mechanical properties are identified and interpreted based on type of material

2.Advantages and disadvantages of materials are identified based on use of materials
3.Materials are tested based on type of material.

3.2.7.3. Information Sheet

 Definitions of terms

 Mechanical properties are physical properties that a material exhibits upon the application of forces
 Test - the determination of the technological and operational properties of materials, primarily by the use
of machines and instruments

INTRODUCTION

The mechanical properties are those which affect the mechanical strength and ability of a material to
be molded in suitable shape. Some of the typical mechanical properties show huge applications in
space and automobile industries. These properties are associated with the capability of the materials to
resist mechanical forces and load and they are measured in terms of the behavior of the material when
subjected to a force. Mechanical properties may be determined to provide either design data for the
engineer or as a check on the standard of raw materials. Mechanical properties may be changed by
heat treatment process and the working temperature. Mostly, the strength, toughness and hardness of
materials are to be measured after the metal forming process.

 Stiffness
It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. Modulus of elasticity is the measure of
stiffness. Material which suffers slight deformation under load has a high degree of stiffness or
rigidity. Steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than aluminium beam. Finally, it means that the ability of
material to resist elastic deflection is known as stiffness.
 Elasticity
It is the property of materials to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces
are removed. Example is the extension or compression of a spring. This property is desirable for
Materials used in tools and machines. Steel is more elastic than rubber. Elasticity is a tensile property
of the material. Proportional limit and elastic limit indicate elasticity. It is also known as Non-
Permanent deformation. It consists of two sub properties within this elastic region. They are
proportional limit and elastic limit. Proportional limit is the maximum stress under which a material
will maintain a perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress. Proportional limit applications are precision
instruments, springs etc... The greatest stress that a material can endure without taking up some
permanent set is called elastic limit. Beyond the elastic limit, material does not regain its original form
and permanent set occurs.

 Plasticity
It is the ability of material to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without rupture or
failure. That means, this is the property of a material to deform permanently under the
application of a load. Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has been
exceeded by the process of slipping when the shear stress on the slip plane reaches a critical value.
Displacement caused by slipping is permanent and the crystal planes do not return to their original
positions even after the removal of the stresses. Applications are forming, shaping, extruding, hot &
cold working process, forging, ornamental work, stamping, rolling, drawing, pressing, etc.
Aluminum is a good plasticity material.

 Ductility
It is the property of a material which enables it to draw out into thin wire with the application of a
tensile force. Ductile material must be both strong and plastic. Ductile materials are gold (most ductile
material), mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin. Ductility usually measured by the terms,
percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area. Ductility is thought of as a tensile quality.
Ductile material combines the properties of plasticity and tensile strength. It is also mentioned as a
capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension without rupture or the ability of a material
to withstand cold deformation without fracture. Ductility of a material is to stretch under the
application of tensile load and retain the deformed shape on the removal of the load. If subjected to a
shock load the material would yield and become deformed. Ductile material can be worked into a
shape without loss of strength. All materials which are formed by drawing are required to be ductile,
e.g. drawing into wire form.

 Brittleness
Breaking of a material with little permanent distortion simply states the property of brittleness. Brittle
materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Usually
the tensile strength of brittle materials is only a fraction of their compressive strength. Examples of
brittle materials are glass, bricks, cast iron etc… It is also a tendency of a material to fracture when
subjected to shock loading or a blow. Material that shatters is also a brittle material.

 Malleability
It is the ability of materials to be rolled, flattened or hammered into thin sheets without cracking by
hot or cold working. Malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be strong and
malleability is considered as a compressive quality. Examples for malleability Al, Cu, Sn, Pb, soft
steel, wrought iron. This is the property of a material to deform permanently under the application of a
compressive load. A material which is forged to its final shape is required to be malleable. Forging,
Rolling processes are malleability.

 Toughness and Testing

It is the ability of a material to withstand bending without fracture due to high impact loads.
Toughness of material decreases when it is heated. It is also measured by the amount of energy
that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed up to failure point and is the area
under stress strain curve. For example, if a load is suddenly applied to a piece of mild steel and then to
a piece of glass, the mild steel will absorb much more energy before failure occurs. Thus mild steel is
said to be much tougher than a glass. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact
loads. Notch toughness is the measure of the metal‘s resistance to brittle fracture in presence of flaw
or notch and fast loading conditions. Examples are Mn-steel, wrought iron, MS, etc…it can be
also defined as property of absorbing energy before fracture. To the opposite of brittleness, the ability
of a material is to resist fracture under shock loading.

 Resilience
The property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads are known as
resilience. Generally, it is mentioned by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic
limit. This is essential for spring materials. Two kind of resilience are available. Proof resilience:
Maximum energy which can be stored in a body up to elastic limit is called the proof resilience. But
the Proof resilience per unit volume is called modulus of resilience.

 Creep
When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of time, it will
undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. Property is considered in designing IC
engines, boilers, turbines. Simplest type of creep deformation- viscous flow Plastics, rubber and
amorphous materials are very temperature sensitive to creep. Stress for a specified rate of strain at a
constant temperature is called creep strength. When a material sustains steady loads for long periods
of time, the material may continue to deform until they may tend to fracture under the same load. This
is called creep. If a load is applied and left on the sample for months or years, the sample will slowly
extend.

 Fatigue
It is a failure of materials under cyclic loads. When a part is subjected to a repeated or fluctuating
stresses, the fracture takes place under a stress whose maximum value is less than the tensile strength
of the material. For instance, the components of high speed aero and turbine engine are of this type.
This is the property of a material to withstand continuously varying and alternating loads. If a part is
loaded once to a stress near the yield stress, it will not break. However, if it is loaded repeatedly to
this level, it will eventually break. This failure is called fatigue. Fatigue is an important goal in the
design of moving machinery. Basically three stages of fatigue processes are
i) Initial fatigue
damage which leads to crack nucleation and crack initiation.
ii) Progressive cyclic growth of a
crack, this is the crack propagation stage, until the remaining un-cracked cross section of a part
becomes too weak to withstand the loads applied.
iii) Final stage is the sudden fracture.

 Hardness
Property of a material to resist penetration by another material is known as hardness. It embraces
many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation etc.. Hardness of
materials can be meant like resistance to abrasion, deformation or indentation.
 Machinability
Machinability is defined as the ease with which a material can be machined such as drill, lathe work,
Cutting. Machinability of metal is indicated by percentage (%) that is known as machinability
index. Standard metal used for the 100% machinability rating is the free-cutting steel. Materials
with good machinability may be cut with relatively little power and low cost. Alloys containing more
than 10% Si are the most difficult to machine because hard particles of free silicon cause rapid tool
 Mechanical property Testing method
wear.
Elasticity, plasticity Tensile test, compression test,
Stiffness, material behaviour under
bending test, torsion
static load
test

Creep behaviour Creep rupture test

Hardness Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers

Toughness Impact test

Fatigue behaviour, fatigue strength Wöhler fatigue test

 Tensile Strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being pulled apart. Some
materials such as plastics and some metals will stretch when subjected to tensile strength, while
other materials like cast iron and concrete will simply snap with no deformation of shape.
 Compressive strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being crushed
 Shear strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being ripped.
 Torsion strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being twisted (see above).
 Heat and Electrical Conductivity - The measure of how well a material conducts heat or electricity.
 Heaviness - The denseness of a material. A dense material will be heavy in relation to its size.

 Strength - The measure of how materials withstand heavy loads without breaking.

MATERIALS TESTING

Materials testing studies the behaviour of materials under different loads. In particular, the relationship
between the acting in quality assurance. There is a range of standardized testing methods to characterize
the mechanical properties of materials
Figure 114: Material testing

1. Compression test to determine flow curves

Compression tests are less significant for testing metallic materials compared to tensile tests.
However, when studying building materials such as natural stone, brick, concrete, wood etc., the
compression test is fundamentally import- ant. A standardized specimen with a known cross section
is loaded uniformly with low increasing force in the longitudinal direction. A uniaxial stress state
prevails in the specimen. The ratio of stress to compression can be shown from the plotted force-path
diagram. The stress-compression diagram shows clearly the different behaviour of the various
separate materials and provides the characteristic values for compression strength, 0,2% offset yield
point and the compression yield stress.

2. Bending tests for the study of deformation behaviour

The most frequently studied bending load in materials testing is the three-point bending test. Using
this method, a beam mounted on two supports is studied under a single force applied to the centre.
The bending test demonstrates the relationship between the load of a bending beam and its elastic
deformation. The effects of modulus of elasticity and second moment of area are shown.

3. Shear test to study the load capacity against shearing

The shear test is applied when testing screws, rivets, pins and parallel keys in order to determine the
shear strength of the material or the behaviour of the material under shear strain. To do this, the shear
stresses are produced in the specimen by means of external shear forces until the specimen shears
off. The resistance of a material against the shear stress can be determined by two different methods,
the single-shear and the double-shear testing method.
 4. Torsion test to study the plastic behaviour of materials

Sheets and strips are subject to high demands in terms of their cold formability for deep drawing. No
cracks are allowed to occur when working with these thin sheets.

The cupping test checks the cold formability in sheets. Components that are subjected to rotary
movements are twisted. This twisting is referred to as torsion. The torsional stiffness determined in
the torsion test serves as orientation for the load capacity of the material. This method is applied in
shafts, axles, wires and springs and to assess the impact behaviour of tool steels.

5. Impact test to determine the toughness property

The impact test is a method with sudden loading and is suit- able primarily for determining the
cleavage fracture tendency or toughness property of a material. This test method does not provide
any values of material characteristics. The determined values of the impact test, the notched-bar
impact strength, do not fit directly into calculations on strength. Rather, they help only with a rough
selection of materials for a specific task.
The deformation behaviour is often an important criterion for the selection of materials. It can be
used to identify quickly which of the selected materials are brittle or tough.

6. Fatigue strength test

Materials behave differently under lasting static loads at increased temperatures than they do under
the same load at without an increase in load lead to a slow but steady irreversible plastic deformation,
also known as creep.

The fatigue strength defines the load limit up to which a material that is loaded dynamically
withstands without breaking. Moving machine parts in particular are subject to dynamic loads,
caused by vibrations for example. In this case, a fracture occurs after a high number of load cycles
with stresses that are far below the yield point and far below the fracture stress.
 7. Principle of the creep rupture test
In the creep rupture test, a specimen is subjected to load at constant stress and constant temperature.
This experiment is performed multiple times with different stresses, but always at the same
temperature. The plastic deformations are measured in continuous intervals. All measured values can
then be transferred to a creep diagram. The measured elongation shows long, even load time, this
leads to fracture of the specimen. A characteristic curve, which is known as the creep curve. The
creep rupture test determines the characteristic values for the creep strength and the various strain
values.

APPLICATIONS OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The mechanical properties of materials are fundamentally important in terms of materials science.
Every mechanical property has specific applications in designing components in manufacturing
automobile, forging, power plant, aerospace etc. Some of the applications and its properties are given
in the table below.
Table 8. Properties and applications

Sl.no Properties Applications

.
1 Proportional limit Precision instruments, springs
2 Plasticity forming, forging, shaping, extruding, hot & cold working,
ornamental work, stamping, rolling, drawing, pressing
3 Elasticity Desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
4 Malleability rolling, hammering
5 Toughness Desirable for shock & impact loads.
6 Resilience Springs
7 Creep in designing IC engines, boilers, turbines
8 Hardness resistance to wear, scratching, deformation
 9 Fatigue high speed aero and turbine engine

3.2.7.4. Learning Activities

Practical activity

With the help of your trainer, undertake a compression test on a building stone or on a concrete block and
determine the compressive strength.
Include a test for tensile strength
Materials and Supplies
• Compression testing machine
• A building stone
• Writing materials

3.2.7.5. Self-Assessment

1. Discuss at least eight properties of materials

2. Which are the three stages of fatigue processes?
3. Highlight the application of the following tests;

i. Plasticity
ii. Elasticity
iii. Malleability
iv. Toughness
 4. Briefly explain the procedure of undertaking the Fatigue strength test

5. Discuss the principle of the creep rupture test.

3.2.7.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Compression testing machine

• A building stone
• Writing materials

3.2.7.7. References

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (8th ed.).
Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Engineering Mechanics:
Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction to Physical Science
(14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

3.2.7.8. Responses

1. Discuss at least eight properties of materials

 Hardness - The resistance of material to being cut, deformed or bent.

 Toughness - The amount of energy a material can absorb without breaking or fracturing.
 Tensile Strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being pulled apart.
Some materials such as plastics and some metals will stretch when subjected to tensile
 strength, while other materials like cast iron and concrete will simply snap with no
deformation of shape.
 Compressive strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being crushed
 Shear strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being ripped.
 Torsion strength - The maximum force a material can withstand when being twisted (see
above).
 Malleability - The amount of hammering and shaping a material can withstand without
breaking, splitting or cracking. Malleability is particularly desirable in metals such as sheet
lead.
 Ductility - The amount that a material can be pulled, pushed, stretched or deformed without
breaking. It is often characterized by a material’s ability to be stretched into a wire. Copper is
a very ductile metal because it can be easily bent and formed into different shapes.

2. Which are the three stages of fatigue processes?

i. Initial fatigue
ii. Damage which leads to crack nucleation and crack initiation.
iii. Progressive cyclic growth of a crack, this is the crack propagation stage, until the
remaining un-cracked cross section of a part becomes too weak to withstand the
loads applied.
iv. Final stage is the sudden fracture.

3. Highlight the application of the following tests;

i. Plasticity - forming, forging, shaping, extruding, hot & cold working, ornamental work,
stamping, rolling, drawing, pressing
ii. Elasticity - Desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
iii. Malleability - rolling, hammering
iv. Toughness - Desirable for shock & impact loads.
4. Briefly explain the procedure of undertaking the Fatigue strength test

Materials behave differently under lasting static loads at increased temperatures than they do
under the same load at without an increase in load lead to a slow but steady irreversible plastic
 deformation, also known as creep.
The fatigue strength defines the load limit up to which a material that is loaded dynamically
withstands without breaking. Moving machine parts in particular are subject to dynamic loads,
caused by vibrations for example. In this case, a fracture occurs after a high number of load
cycles with stresses that are far below the yield point and far below the fracture stress.
5. Discuss the principle of the creep rupture test.
In the creep rupture test, a specimen is subjected to load at constant stress and constant
temperature. This experiment is performed multiple times with different stresses, but always at
the same temperature. The plastic deformations are measured in continuous intervals

3.2.8. Learning outcome 8: Apply electrical principles

3.2.8.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit involves identifying, applying and interpretation of electrical principles based on
international standards while observing occupational safety and health practices. It also involves
identification and installation of simple electrical circuits.

3.2.8.2. Performance Standard

1. Electrical principles are identified based on scientific principles

2. Electrical standards are interpreted based on international standards
3. Occupational safety and health practices are identified based on statutory and sector regulations.
4. Simple electrical circuits are identified based on international standards.

3.2.8.3. Information Sheet

Definitions of terms
  Atom - the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist.
 Neutron - a subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric
charge, present in all atomic nuclei
 Proton - a stable subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a positive electric
charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron.
 Nucleus - the positively charged central core of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons
and containing nearly all its mass.
 Conductivity – how well a material allows electron movement
 Resistivity - how well a material resists electron flow is called
 Voltage - the difference in electron concentration. Also known as the potential difference
 Resistance is the opposition to electron movement through a conductor
 Current - is The rate at which electricity flows through an appliance
 Power - when electricity is converted into other forms of energy, such as light, heat or mechanical

The basic principles of electron flow theory

Everything on Earth is made up of atoms. Atoms are not solid. At the centre of every atom is a
nucleus, which consists of an equal number of positively (+) charged protons and negatively (-)
charged neutrons, making the atom electrically neutral. The neutrons play no role in the electrical
properties of atoms. Their sole purpose is to hold the nucleus together. Without them, the nucleus
would fly apart. Revolving around the nucleus is the electron. These too have a negative (-)
charge.
Figure 115:The nucleus of an atom

As can be seen from the image, the atom is very similar to a mini solar system, with electrons
orbiting the nucleus like the planets around the sun, and, just like a solar system, those electrons
nearer the nucleus orbit more quickly than those further away. The electrons that are furthest
away are less attracted to the atom and are easily deflected from their weak orbits, to be attracted
by other atoms. It is this constant movement of electrons from one atom to another that makes
electricity possible. Materials that allow the free movement of electrons are called conductors.
Those that prevent movement are called insulators.
Measurements of Electrical Flow

Electricity is measured in two ways:

1. By the number of electrons flowing. This is called the current and it is measured in Amperes or
Amps.

2. By the amount of pressure, or the push, which causes the current to flow. This is measured in
Volts.

Voltage is created by the electrons which, being negatively charged, repel each other. When
electrons are concentrated in one place, they will flow freely away provided the path is clear for
them to do so. It is the Voltage (or push) that makes them move. If there are lots of electrons in
one place, the Voltage is high and many electrons will flow through the conductor. The more
electrons that flow, the better the conductor.
 The direction of movement of the negatively charged electrons is random unless a force acts upon
them to move them in the same direction. This is Electro-Motive Force (EMF), better known as
electricity.
Material Conductivity and Resistance

 Conductivity – conductivity is the ability of the material to allow the movement of

electricity. A good conductor allows free movement of electrons; whereas a poor
conductor resists the flow of electrons. Silver is the best conductor of electricity with
copper a close second. However, copper is much cheaper to manufacture into electrical
cables and has less mass (silver = 10490kg/m3: copper = 8960kg/m3).

 Resistivity – resistivity is the opposition to electron flow. It is the resistance of the

material against the flow of electricity. When a metal resists the flow of electricity, the
energy can be transformed into other forms of energy, such as heat and light. For example,
when electricity passes through the resistance of a heating element in an electric kettle,
the water will eventually boil. Similarly, when electricity passes through the filament of
a light lamp, light is generated. The amount of resistance will depend on the material.
Types of Current

There are two different types of electricity:

Direct Current (DC)

Direct Current is generated by a number of sources. It can be generated by photo-voltaic (PV)

panels or as a result of an electrochemical reaction. DC current can be stored in cells and batteries.

In a DC circuit, the electrons will always flow from the negative (-) pole to the positive (+) pole.
The

direction of the electrons, known as the polarity, never changes. The negative electrons will seek
the positive. It never reverses

Figure 116:A simple DC circuit

The symbol for DC Current

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current does not travel in one direction. It reverses its direction of travel from positive
to negative and from negative to positive, constantly. In other words, it alternates. AC current
alternates 50 times every second. This is known as the frequency and is measured in Hertz.

Figure 117:A simple AC circuit

Figure 118: The symbol for AC Current

Below is a table of the advantages and disadvantages of AC current:

The advantages and disadvantages of AC current

Advantages Disadvantages
 Voltages can be transformed easily  AC current cannot be stored. It is
from one voltage to another. DC generated at power stations and bulky
voltage is hard to transform. portable generators.

 AC current can be transported over long  AC power tools need long cables, which
distances without excessive voltage loss can be a trip hazard. DC power tools use
making it much more efficient than DC battery power and are much more
voltage. portable than AC power tools.

Voltage (volts)

In a circuit where there are more electrons in one part of the circuit than the other, the electrons
will flow from the area of concentration to the area where they are absent. The higher the voltage,
then it can be assumed that there is a greater imbalance and the harder the electrons will repel
each other. This leads to greater current or flow (in amps) in the circuit.

The voltage in a circuit can be calculated:

𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠 (𝐼) 𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)

Resistance
 Every electrical circuit has resistance. Some circuits have more resistance than others. In some
circuits, resistance is necessary to reduce the amount electrons flowing, whilst in others as little
resistance as possible will ensure high current flow.

The interaction between current (or electron flow), voltage (current flow) and resistance is shown
in Ohm’s Law. As the voltage increases, more electrons will flow. Increasing the voltage leads
to an increase in current. However, if the resistance is increased, this reduces the current flow
and the amps in the circuit.

The resistance in a circuit can be calculated:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉) ÷ 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠 (𝐼) = 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 (𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)(Ω)

Current

Is measured in amps. The easiest way to understand current is through a water analogy.

A 15mm pipe at 2 bar pressure will deliver a set flow rate. If we want to increase that flow rate,
we would need a bigger pipe. If we increased the pipe size to 22mm, then the pressure would be
the same but the flow rate would be greater.

In electrical terms, the voltage is the pressure and the current is the flow rate. If we increase the
cable size, the voltage remains at 230V but the current is greater.

The SI unit of measurement of electrical current is the Ampere or amp (i). The current in a circuit
can be calculated:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉) ÷ 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 (𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)(Ω 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠 (𝐼)

Power

When electricity is converted into other forms of energy, such as light, heat or mechanical, it is
called power. It is equal to the sum of the current and the voltage.

An immersion heater, rated at 3kW simply means that the electrical energy is converted into heat
to warm the water. Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed and is
defined as 1 joule per second.

The SI unit of measurement of electrical power is the Watt (W). The power in a circuit can be
calculated:
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠 (𝐼) 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (V) = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Carrying out simple electrical calculations

Ohm's law states:

‘The current through a conductor between two points is equal to the voltage across the two
points, and inversely proportional to the resistance between them.’

It defines the relationship current, voltage, resistance and power.

According to Ohm’s law:

‘1 Ohm is the resistance through which 1 volt will maintain a current of 1 amp.’

In theory, if we have 2 electrical values, then we can calculate a third. In the following calculations:

𝑰 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑽 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑹 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑷 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

The diagrams below show Ohm’s triangle and the power triangle. By covering the Unit you are
calculating with your finger, the remaining units are needed in the calculation. For example, if
we are calculating voltage, cover the ‘V’ and we are left with 𝐼 𝑥 𝑅. If we are calculating
resistance, cover the ‘R’ and we are left with:

Figure 119:Ohm’s Law equations

Simple calculations using Ohm’s Law
 Example 1 – What size of over current protection device will be needed to protect a circuit that has
a 3kW immersion heater installed on a 230V supply?

The formula for this is:

𝐼=𝑃÷𝑉

Therefore:

First, convert the kilowatts to watts by multiplying by 1000:

𝟑𝒌𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 ÷ 𝟐𝟑𝟎
= 𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔

Voltage, current and resistance in series and parallel circuits

There two types of circuit:

A. Series

B. Parallel
Series Circuits

A series circuit has only one path from the power

source through the circuit loads and back to the
power source. In this instance, the current MUST
flow through ALL of the loads.

This circuit depends upon all of the lamps working perfectly. If one of the lamps fails, then the whole
circuit will fail and none of the lamps will light up. This is because the current flows from one lamp
to the next. It is the ONLY path from the power source and back again.

Consider the circuit to the right. The circuit has one lamp connected to a 230V electricity supply. The
lamp will glow at full brightness simply because it is receiving all of the current. To find the resistance
in the circuit, we must first find the current (I). Since we know the POWER (40Watt) then:
60
The current (amps) is:
𝟔𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔

𝟐𝟑𝟎

Now, we can apply Ohm’s law to find the resistance:

𝑹 = 𝑽
𝑰

𝟐𝟑𝟎 = 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

Therefore
:
𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕

If a second lamp with the same 40 Watts is

added to the circuit, then the resistance in the 6 60
circuit will double and the current flow is half
that when there was only one lamp. The voltage
is now only 115V to each lamp and this halves
the brightness emitting from each lamp. Both
lamps have the same voltage drop.

Again, firstly, we must find the current:

Therefore, the current (amps) is:
 𝑰= 𝑾 𝑽

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔
𝟐𝟑𝟎

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔

Now, we can apply Ohm’s law to find the resistance of each light lamp:
𝑹= 𝑽
𝑰

Now the total resistance of the circuit:

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

𝑹𝑻 = 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 + 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟕 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

To find the current across the circuit using the total resistance:
𝑰=𝑽
𝑹

Therefore
𝟐𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟑 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔
:

𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟕

To find the voltage, since each lamp is 40 Watts with a resistance of 1763.3307 Ohms and the total
circuit current is 0.13043 amps, to find the voltage to each lamp:
𝑽=𝑰𝒙𝑹
𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟑 𝒙 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟗𝑽

Because each lamp is only drawing 115V, each lamp will only glow with half its potential
 brightness. To find out how many Watts is being generated:
𝑷=𝑰𝒙𝑽

Therefore:
𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟑 𝒙 𝟐𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
 10 60 60

We must find the current to each light lamp:

𝑰 = 𝑾/𝑽

𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟕𝟗 𝒂𝒎𝒑s

𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕 𝒂𝒎𝒑s

𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝟑 = 𝟔𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔
𝟐𝟑𝟎

Now, we can apply Ohm’s law to find the resistance of each light lamp:
𝑹=𝑽
𝑰

Therefore
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎
:
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟕𝟗
= 𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟗. 𝟗𝟏 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔
 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎
= 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕

𝑹𝟑 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎

𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟖𝟕
= 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

Now find the total resistance of the circuit:

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

𝑹𝑻 = 𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟗. 𝟗𝟏 + 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 + 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏

= 𝟕𝟎𝟓𝟑. 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟐 𝑶𝒉𝒎𝒔

To find the current across the circuit using the total resistance:
𝑰= 𝑽
𝑹

Therefore
𝟐𝟑𝟎
:
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟔𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔

𝟕𝟎𝟓𝟑. 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟐

To find the voltage to each lamp:

𝑽=𝑰𝒙𝑹
 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 @ 𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟔𝟏 𝒙 𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟗. 𝟗𝟏 = 𝟏𝟕𝟐. 𝟓𝟎𝟑 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 @ 𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟔𝟏 𝒙 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 @ 𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟔𝟏 𝒙 𝟖𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟏 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

Because each lamp is drawing less voltage, each lamp will only glow with a fraction of its
potential brightness.

Parallel Circuits

A parallel circuit has at least 2 independent paths in the circuit.

In a parallel circuit, each light

lamp has its own independent
path to the power source. This
means that the lamps are
unaffected by each other. If
one lamp fails, the other two
will continue to work.
Voltage is equal across all
components. However, the
current
increases when more light lamps are added and if too many are installed, then the
circuit will overload.
 3.2.8.4. Learning Activities
Practical activity

Assemble a circuit in a series as shown in the diagram below

10 60 60

Figure 120: A series circuit

Materials and Supplies

 Battery
 Bulbs (10W, 60W x 2)
 Connecting wires
 Pliers
 Clips

3.2.8.5. Self-Assessment

1. Using the Ohm’s Law Formula calculate the voltage in a circuit which has a resistance of 115
Ohms and a current of 2 amps.

𝑽=𝑰𝒙𝑹
 𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

2. Calculate the resistance in a circuit when the voltage is 110V and the current is 45 amps.

𝜴=𝑽÷𝑰

𝟏𝟏𝟎 ÷ 𝟒𝟓 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 𝐎𝐡𝐦𝒔
3. What are the two advantages of AC over DC voltage?
- AC voltages can be transformed easily from one voltage to another. DC voltage
is hard to transform.
- AC current can be transported over long distances without excessive voltage loss
making it much more efficient than DC voltage.
4. Distinguish between conductivity and resistivity giving an example.
- Conductivity is the ability of the material to allow the movement of electricity. A good
conductor allows free movement of electrons; whereas a poor conductor resists the
flow of electrons. Silver is the best conductor of electricity with copper a close second.
- Resistivity is the opposition to electron flow. It is the resistance of the material against
the flow of electricity. When a metal resists the flow of electricity, the energy can be
transformed into other forms of energy, such as heat and light. For example, when
electricity passes through the resistance of a heating element in an electric kettle, the
water will eventually boil.
5. In your own understanding, discuss how voltage is created.
Voltage is created by the electrons which, being negatively charged, repel each other.
When electrons are concentrated in one place, they will flow freely away provided the path
is clear for them to do so. It is the Voltage (or push) that makes them move. If there are lots
of electrons in one place, the Voltage is high and many electrons will flow through the
conductor
 3.2.8.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

 Battery
 Bulbs (10W, 60W x 2)
 Connecting wires
 Pliers
 Clips

3.2.8.7. References

Hibbeler, R. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (14th ed.). Pearson.

Meriam, J. L., Kraige, L. G., & Bolton, J. N. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (8th
ed.). Wiley.
Nelson, E., Best, C., McLean, W., & Potter, M. (2010). Schaum’s Outline of Engineering
Mechanics: Statics (Schaum’s Outlines) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J. D., Higgins, C. A., & Torres, O. (2015). An Introduction to Physical
Science (14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Tillery, B., Slater, S. J., & Slater, T. F. (2016). Physical Science (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.

3.2.8.8. Responses

1. Using the Ohm’s Law Formula calculate the voltage in a circuit which has a resistance of 115
Ohms and a current of 2 amps.
 𝑽=𝑰𝒙𝑹

𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

2. Calculate the resistance in a circuit when the voltage is 110V and the current is 45 amps.

𝜴=𝑽÷𝑰

𝟏𝟏𝟎 ÷ 𝟒𝟓 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 𝐎𝐡𝐦𝒔
3. What are the two advantages of AC over DC voltage?
- AC voltages can be transformed easily from one voltage to another. DC
voltage is hard to transform.
- AC current can be transported over long distances without excessive voltage
loss making it much more efficient than DC voltage.
4. Distinguish between conductivity and resistivity giving an example.
- Conductivity is the ability of the material to allow the movement of electricity. A
good conductor allows free movement of electrons; whereas a poor conductor
resists the flow of electrons. Silver is the best conductor of electricity with copper
a close second.
- Resistivity is the opposition to electron flow. It is the resistance of the material
against the flow of electricity. When a metal resists the flow of electricity, the
energy can be transformed into other forms of energy, such as heat and light. For
example, when electricity passes through the resistance of a heating element in an
electric kettle, the water will eventually boil.
5. In your own understanding, discuss how voltage is created.
Voltage is created by the electrons which, being negatively charged, repel each other.
When electrons are concentrated in one place, they will flow freely away provided the
path is clear for them to do so. It is the Voltage (or push) that makes them move. If
there are lots of electrons in one place, the Voltage is high and many electrons will
flow through the conductor