Forging

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Forging Processes

Forging

 Forging is the working of metal into a useful


shape by hammering or pressing.

 The oldest of the metalworking arts


(primitive blacksmith).

 Replacement of machinery occurred during early


the Industrial revolution.

 Forging machines are now capable of making


parts ranging in size of a bolt to a turbine
rotor.

 Most forging operations are carried out hot,


although certain metals may be cold-forged.
Forging operations

 Edging
 Drawing
 Piercing
 Punching
 Fullering
 Swaging
Forging operations
Edging is used to shape
the ends of the bars and
to gather metal.
The metal flow is
confined in the
horizontal direction but
it is free to flow
laterally to fill the die.

Drawing is used to reduce


the cross-sectional area of
the work-piece with
concurrent increase in
length.

Piercing and punching are


used to produce holes in
metals.
Forging operations
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-
sectional area of a portion of the stock.

The metal flow is outward and away from


the centre of the fuller. i.e., forging of
connecting rod for an internal combustion
engine.

Fuller move fast and moves metal perpendicular


to the face
Fullers come in
different
shapes
Forging operations

Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller


diameter (using concave dies).

•Swaging is a special type of forging in


which metal is formed by a succession of
rapid hammer blows.
•Swaging at the ends, ready for next
forming process
Classification of forging processes

By process
1) Open - die forging
2)Closed - die forging (Impression Die Forging)

By equipment
1) Forging hammer or drop hammer
2) Forging presses

By temperature of working
1) Cold forging
2)Warm forging
3)Hot forging.
Hammer and press forging processes

Forging hammers There are two basic types of forging hammers used;

• Board hammer

• Power hammer

Forging presses There are two basic types of forging presses available;

• Mechanical presses

• Hydraulic presses
Forming machines
Board hammer –forging hammer
•The upper die and ram are raised by friction rolls
gripping the board.

• After releasing the board, the ram falls under


gravity to produce the blow energy.

•The hammer can strike between 60-150 blows per


minute depending on size and capacity.

•The board hammer is an energy restricted machine.


The blow energy supplied equal the potential energy
due to the weight and the height of the fall.

Board hammer
•This energy will be delivered to the metal work-
piece to produce plastic deformation.
Forging hammer or drop hammer
•Provide rapid impact blows to the surface of the
metal.

• Dies are in two halves


- Lower : fixed to anvil
- Upper : moves up and down with the TUP.

•Energy (from a gravity drop) is adsorbed onto the


metal, in which the maximum impact is on the metal
surface.

•Dies are expensive being accurately machined from


special alloys (susceptible to thermal shock).

• Drop forging is good for mass production of


complex shapes.
Power hammer
•Power hammer provides greater capacity, in
which the ram is accelerated on the down
stroke by steam or air pressure in addition to
gravity.
•Steam or air pressure is also used to raise
the ram on the upstroke.
•The total energy supplied to the blow in a
power drop hammer is given by

Where
m = mass
v = velocity of ram at start of deformation
g = acceleration of gravity
p = air or steam pressure acting on ram cylinder on down
stroke
A = area of ram cylinder
H = height of the ram drop
Hydraulic press forging
•Using a hydraulic press or a mechanical press
to forge the metal, therefore, gives continuous
forming at a slower rate.

•Provide deeper penetration.


•Better properties (more homogeneous).
• Equipment is expensive.
Example: Hydraulic Press forging

•Hydraulic presses are load-restricted machines in


which hydraulic pressure moves a piston in a
cylinder.

•The full press load is available at any point during


the full stroke of the ram. Therefore, hydraulic
presses are ideally suited for extrusion-type forging
operation.

•Due to slow speed, contact time is longer at the


die-metal interface, which causes problems such as
heat lost from work-piece and die deterioration.

•Also provide close-tolerance forging.

•Hydraulic presses are more expensive than


mechanical presses and hammers.
Mechanical press forging
•Crank press translates rotary motion into
reciprocating linear motion of the pressslide.

•The ram stroke is shorter than in a hammer or


hydraulic press.

•Presses are rated on the basis of the force


developed at the end of thestroke.

•The blow press is more like squeeze than like


the impact of the hammer, therefore, dies can be
less massive and die life is longer than with a
hammer.

Mechanical press • The total energy supplied during the stroke of a


press is given by
Where
I is moment of inertia of the flywheel ω is angular
velocity, ωo-original, ωf-after deformation, rad.s-1
Closed and open die forging processes
OPEN DIE PROCESS

• TYPES

– UPSETTING

– COGGING

– SOLID FORGING

– PIERCING, PUNCHING AND TREPANNING

– RING FORGING

– COMBINED PROCESSES
OPEN DIE PROCESS

• UPSETTING
OPEN DIE PROCESS

• COGGING
OPEN DIE PROCESS

• COGGING
• Co-efficient of Spread (S) = Width Elongation/ Thickness Contraction

= ln (W1/W0)/ ln(h0/h1)

Using volume constancy relation,

1- S = Length Elongation/ Thickness Contraction

When S = 1  all the deformation manifest as spread, i.e. Width metal


flow happens.

When S = 0  all the deformation manifest as elongation, i.e. Length


direction metal flow happens.

Bite ratio = b/W0 (Breadth/ width)


Spread Law,  = (1/)S ;  - Spread ratio (W1/W0) ;  - Squeeze ratio
(h1/h0)
OPEN DIE PROCESS

• RING FORGING
– Slight rotation of the ring on each press stroke
reduces the ring wall uniformly and increases
both the inside and outside diameters. The
height of the ring remains nearly constant, but
may require edging
Open-die forging

•Open-die forging is carried out


between flat dies or dies of very
simple shape.

•The process is used for mostly


large objects or when the number of
parts produced is small.

•Open-die forging is often used to


perform the work-piece for closed-
die forging.
Closed-die forging (or impression-die forging)
•The work-piece is deformed between two die
halves which carry the impressions of the desired
final shape.
•The work-piece is deformed under high pressure
in a closed cavity.

Normally used for smaller components

•The process provide precision forging with close


dimensional tolerance.
• Closed dies are expensive.
Closed-die forging operation

Flash is the excess metal, which


Typical curve of forging load vs. stroke for squirts out of the cavity as a thick
closed-die forging. ribbon of metal.
Typical load-stroke curve
Effect of D/h ratio on load:
in open die forging
Compression Load

µ2 > µ1
µ2
µ1
µ0

Effect of h/D ratio on barreling: D/h

Long cylinder: h/D >2 Cylinder having h/D < 2


Frictionless compression
With friction
Functions of flash

The flash serves two purposes:


 Acts as a ‘safety value’ for excess metal.
 Builds up high pressure to ensure that the
metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.

Remark: It is necessary to achieve complete filling of the forging cavity without


generating excessive pressures against the die that may cause it to fracture.
Die materials
Required properties

•Thermal shock resistance


•Thermal fatigue resistance
•High temperature strength Die materials: alloyed steels (with Cr,
Mo, W, V), tool steels, cast steels or cast
•High wear resistance iron. (Heat treatments such are nitriding
•High toughness and ductility or chromium plating are required to
improve die life)
•High hardenability
•High dimensional stability during
hardening
• High machinability Note:
1)Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85% C are appropriate for small tools
and flat impressions.
2) Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer dies.
3)Highly alloyed steels for high temperature resistant dies used in
presses and horizontal forging machines.
Die life can be increasedby
1) Improving die materials such as using composite die or
2) Using surface coating or self-lubricating coatings

Ultra hard surface coatings

Ultra hard surface coating on die


surface is used to

•Improve die life.


•Reduce energy input.
•Reduce die-related uptime and
downtime.
•Reduce particulate emission from
lubricants.
Die failures
Different types of die failure

•Different parts of dies are liable to permanent deformation and wear resulting from
mechanical and thermal fatigue.
•Important factors: shape of the forging, die materials, how the workpiece is heated, coating of
die surface, the operating temperature (should not exceed the annealingtemperature).
Effect of forging on microstructure

grain structure resulting from (a) forging, (b) machining and (c)casting.

•The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated in the direction of the
deformation.
•The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure (revealed by etching). This
structure gives better mechanical properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps) lower
across the thickness.
•The workpiece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore, provide finer grains compared to the
cast dendritic structure resulting in improved mechanical properties.
Forming textures
Redistribution of metal structures occurring during forming process involves two principle
components;
1) redistribution of inclusions
2) crystallographic orientation of the grains

1) The redistribution of inclusions

Redistribution during
forming of
(a) soft inclusions
(b) hard inclusions
2) Crystallographic orientation of the grains

Castings Forgings

Cast iron structure


Fibre structure in forgedsteels
Mainly epitaxial,
dendritic or Redistribution of grains
equiaxed grains in the working directions
Residual stresses in forging

•The residual stress produced in forgings as a results of inhomogeneous deformation are


generally small because the deformation is normally carried out well into the hot-working region.

• However, appreciable residual stresses and warping can occur on the quenching of steel
forgings in heat treatment.
•Large forgings are subjected to the formation of small cracks, or flakes at the centre of the cross
section. This is associated with the high hydrogen content usually present in steel ingots of large
size, coupled with the presence of residual stresses.

• Large forgings therefore have to be slowly cooled from the working temperature.
Examples: burying the forging in ashes for a period of time or using a controlled cooling furnace.
Typical forging defects

• Incomplete forging penetration

• Surface cracking

• Flash cracking

• Cold shuts or Fold

• Loose scale or lubricant residue

• Internal cracks

• Flow lines or fibre structure

• Die misalignment.

• Hot shortness, due to high sulphur concentration in steel and nickel.


Typical forging defects

•Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs more often in thin work-pieces. Therefore
should increase the thickness of the flash.
• Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is forced into the
work-piece.
• Internal cracking, due to secondary tensile stress.

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