Metal Forming- Extrusion

What is extrusion?

Extrusion is the process by which a block/billet of metal is reduced in cross

section by forcing it to flow through a die orifice under high pressure.

• In general, extrusion is used to produce

cylindrical bars or hollow tubes or the starting
stock for drawn rod, cold extrusion or forged
products.

• Most metals are hot extruded due to large

amount of forces required in extrusion. Complex
shapes can be extruded from the more readily
extrudable metals such as aluminium.

• The products obtained are also called

extrusion/ extrudate.
• The reaction of the extrusion billet with the container and die results in high
compressive stresses which are effective in reducing the cracking of materials during
primary breakdown from the ingot.

• This helps to increase the utilisation of extrusion in the working of metals that are
difficult to form like stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and other high-temperature
materials.
• Similar to forging, lower ram force and a fine grained recrystallised structure are
possible in hot extrusion.
• However, better surface finish and higher strengths (strain hardened metals) are
provided by cold extrusion.
Classification of extrusion processes

Based on direction of • Direct / Indirect extrusion

extrusion • Forward / backward extrusion

By operating • Hot / cold extrusion

temperature

By equipment • Horizontal and vertical extrusion

 Direct and Indirect extrusions
• The metal billet is placed in a container and
1) Direct / Forward Extrusion driven through the die by the ram.
• The extrudate moves in the direction of
extrusion
container the ram.
dummy plate
• The dummy block or pressure plate, is placed
ram at the end of the ram in contact with the
die billet.
billet
• Friction is at the die and container wall 
requires higher pressure than indirect extrusion.

2) Indirect / Backward Extrusion • The hollow ram containing the die is kept
stationary and the container with the billet
extrusion
closure
is caused to move.
container
plate
• Friction at the die only (no relative movement
at the container wall)  requires roughly
constant pressure.
ram die
• Hollow ram limits the applied load.
billet • The movement of extrudate is opposite to the
direction of ram motion.
 Functions of DummyBlock
 To repeatedly transmit the force of the ram, at high temperature,
to the alloy.
 To expand quickly under load and maintain a secure seal with the
container wall.
 To cause no gas entrapment that can result in blistering, or
damage the face of the container and/or dummy block.
 To compensate for minor press misalignment.
 Extrusion pressure, MPa Extrusion pressure = extrusion force /c-s area
Direct extrusion

• The rapid rise in pressure during initial ram travel

Indirect extrusion is due to the initial compression of the billet to fill
the extrusion container.
Ram travel, mm • For direct extrusion, the metal begins to flow
Extrusion pressure vs. ram travel through the die at the maximum pressure, the
breakthrough pressure.

• As the billet extrudes through the die the pressure required to maintain flow
progressively decreases with decreasing length of the billet in the container.
• At the end of the stroke, the pressure rises up rapidly and it is usual to stop the ram
travel so as to leave a small discard in the container.
• For indirect extrusion, extrusion pressure is ~ constant with increasing ram travel and
represent the stress required to deform the metal through the die.
• Since hollow ram is used in indirect extrusion, size of the extrusions and extrusion
pressure are limited.
 Cold extrusion
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Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature

or slightly elevated temperatures. This process can be
used for most materials-subject to designing robust
enough tooling that can withstand the stresses created by
extrusion.

Examples of the metals that can be extruded are lead,

tin, aluminium alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, Cold extrusion
vanadium, steel. Examples of parts that are cold extruded
are collapsible tubes, aluminium cans, cylinders, gear blanks.

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Advantages
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• No oxidation takes place.

• Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working
as long as the temperatures created are below the re- Collapsible
tubes
crystallization temperature.
• Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants.
Aluminium cans
 Hot extrusion
Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures,
approximately 50 to 75 % of the melting point of the metal.

The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa (5076 - 101,525

psi).

• The most commonly used extrusion process is the hot direct

extrusion process. The cross-sectional shape of the extrusion

is defined by the shape of the die.

• Due to the high temperatures and pressures and its

detrimental effect on the die life as well as other

components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and graphite

work at lower temperatures, whereas at higher temperatures

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glass powder is used. www.ansoniacb.com
 Tube extrusion
 Tubes can be produced by extrusion by attaching a mandrel to the end of the
ram. The clearance between the mandrel and the die wall determines the wall
thickness of the tube.
 Tubes are produced either by starting with a hollow billet or by a two - step
extrusion in which a solid billet is first pierced and then extruded.
 Extrusion of tubing

Anodized aluminium
extrusions: square
Extrusion of tubing from a solid billet tubing.

• To produce tubing by extrusion from a

solid billet, the ram may also be fitted
with a piercing mandrel. As the ram
moves forward, the metal is forced over
the mandrel and through the hole in the
die, causing a long hollow tube. Just like
toothpaste, only hollow.

Extrusion of tubing from a hollow billet

• If the billets are hollow, a rod that
matches the diameter of the cast hole in
the billet (but slightly smaller than the
hole in the die at the opposite end of the
chamber) are used.
• Note: the bore of the hole will become
oxidized resulting in a tube with an
oxidized inside surface.
Extrusion of tubes with a  The metal is forced to flow into
porthole die separate streams and around the
central bridge, which supports a
A

short mandrel.
 The separate streams of metal
which flow through the ports are
A
brought together in a welding
Exit face Cross section A-A Entrance face

A sketch of a porthole extrusion die chamber surrounding the mandrel,

and the metal exits from the die as
a tube.
 Since the separate metal streams
Porthole extrusion are jointed within the die, where
there is no atmosphere
contamination, a perfectly sound
weld is obtained.
 Porthole extrusion is used to
Example: pyramid porthole dies
produce hollow unsymmetrical
shapes in aluminium alloys.
 Production of seamless pipe and tubing

 Extrusion is suited for producing seamless pipe

and tubing, especially for metals which are
difficult to work.
 The red-hot billet is rotated and drawn by rolls
over a piercing rod, or mandrel. The action of the
rolls causes the metal to flow over and about the
mandrel to create a hollow pipe shell.
 After reheating, the shell is moved forward over
Stainless steel seamless pipes
a support bar and is hot- rolled in several
reducing/sizing stands to the desired wall
thickness and diameter.
 (a) The Mannesmann mill is used for
the rotary piercing of steel and
copper billets using two barrel-
shape driven rolls, which are set at
an angle to each other. The axial
thrust is developed as well as
rotation to the billet.
(b) The plug rolling mills drive the
(b) Plug rolling mill tube over a long mandrel
(a) Mannesmann mill containing a plug.
(c) The three-roll piercing machine
produces more concentric tubes
with smoother inside and outside
surface.
(c) Three-roll
piercing machine (d) Plug rolling mill

Production of seamless pipeand tubing (d)The reeling mill burnishes the

outside and inside surfaces and
removes the slight oval shape,
which is usually one of the last
steps in the production of pipe or
tubing.
 Impact extrusion

 Produce shorter lengths of hollow shapes, such

as collapsible toothpaste tubes or spray cans.

 Soft materials such as aluminium, lead, copper or

tin are normally used in the impact extrusion.

 A small shot of solid material is placed in the die

and is impacted by a ram, which causes cold flow in
the material. It may be either direct or indirect
extrusion and it is usually performed on a high-
speed mechanical press.

 Although the process is generally performed

cold, considerable heating results from the high
speed deformation.
Extrusion was originally applied to the making of lead pipe and later to the lead
sheathing on electrical cable.

Extrusion of lead sheath on electrical

cable.
 Extrusion equipment/ Components

Extrusion equipment mainly includes presses, dies and tooling.

1) Presses
• Most extrusions are made with hydraulic presses.

• These can be classified based on the direction of travel of the ram.

- Horizontal presses
- Vertical presses
2) Extrusion dies
- Die, Die Holders/ Bolsters

3) Tools
- Containers, Dummy Blocks
 Horizontal extrusion presses

 15- 50 MN capacity or upto 140 MN

 Used for most commercial extrusion of bars and shapes.
Disadvantages:
• Deformation is non-uniform due to different temperatures between front and back end of
the billet.
• Misalignment is possible.

600 Tonne, DUISBURG, HYDRAULIC EXT.

PRESS
 Vertical extrusion presses
 3- 20 MN capacity
 Chiefly used in the production of thin-wall tubing.
Advantages:
• Easier alignment between the press ram and tools.
• Higher rate of production.
• Require less floor space than horizontal presses.
• Uniform deformation, due to lower aspect ratio of the billet in the container.

Requirements:
• Need considerable headroom to make extrusions
of appreciable length.
• A floor pit is necessary.

Vertical extrusion machine

 Ram speed

Require high ram speeds in high-temperature extrusion due to heat transfer

problem from billet to tools.

Ram speeds of 0.4-0.6 ms-1 (for refractory metals) requires a hydraulic

accumulator with the press.

Ram speeds of a few mm s-1 for aluminium and copper due to hot shortness
requires direct-drive pumping systems to maintain a uniform finishing
temperature.
 Die design
• Die design is at the heart of efficient extrusion
production.
• Dies must withstand considerable amount of stresses,
thermal shock, and oxidation.

Die design consideration www.capalex.co.uk

Die design
Die design  Wall thickness: different wall
thicknesses in one section should be
CAD/CAM avoided.
Milling  Simple shapes: the more simple shape,
the more cost effective.
Wire
sparkling
 Symmetrical: more accurate.
erosion  Sharp or rounded corners: sharp
corners should be avoided.
Finishing  Size to weight ratio
Inspection  Tolerances: tolerances are added to
allow some distortions (industrial
standards).
 Die materials
www.uni-
 Dies are made from highly alloyed tool stuttgart.de

steels or ceramics (zirconia, Si3N4). (for cold Ceramic

extrusion  offering longer tool life and extrusion dies
reduced lubricant used, good wear resistance).
 Wall thickness as small as 0.5 mm (on flat
dies) or 0.7 mm (on hollow dies) can be made
for aluminium extrusion.
 Heat treatments such as nitriding are
required (several times) to increase hardness
(1000-1100 Hv or 65-70 HRC). This improves www.capalex.co.uk
die life  avoiding unscheduled press
shutdown.

There are two general types of extrusion dies:

1) Flat-faced dies
2) Dies with conical entrance angle.

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steel extrusion
dies
 1) Flat-faced dies 2) Dies with conical entrance angle
Die entrance Die entrance

€
€

• Metal entering the die will • requires good lubricants.

form a dead zone and shears • decreasing die angle € increases
internally to form its own die homogeneity, lower extrusion
angle. pressure (but beyond a point the
• A parallel land on the exit side friction in the die surfaces becomes
of the die helps strengthen too great)
the die and allow for reworking • for most operation, 45o < € < 60o
of the flat face on the
entrance side of the die
without increasing the exit
diameter.
 Typical arrangement of extrusion tooling

Typical arrangement of extrusion tooling

Extrusion dies
wedge
container
die head
liner

die holder

bolster die

 The die stack consists of the die, which is supported by a die holder and a
bolster, all of which are held in a die head.
 The entire assembly is sealed against the container on a conical seating surface by
pressure applied by a wedge.
 A liner is shrunk in a more massive container to withstand high pressures.
 The follower pad/ dummy block is placed between the hot billet and the ram for
protection purpose. Follower pads are therefore replaced periodically since they are
subject to many cycles of thermal shock.
 Extrusion variables

The principal variables influencing the force required to cause extrusion:

1) Type of extrusion (direct / indirect)

2) Extrusion ratio
3) Working temperature
4) Deformation Speed
5) Frictional conditions at the die and the container wall.
 Extrusion ratio

Extrusion ratio, R, is the ratio of the initial cross-sectional area , A o , of the billet to

the final cross-sectional area , A f , after extrusion.

Ao R ~ 40:1 for hot extrusion of steels.

R …Eq.1 R ~ 400:1 for aluminium.
Af

Fractional reduction in area, r

Af 1
r1 …Eq.2 and R …Eq.3
Ao (1 r)

Note: R is more descriptive at large deformations!

Ex: R = 20:1 and 50:1  r = 0.95 and 0.98 respectively.
The velocity of the extruded product is given by

Velocity of the extruded product = ram velocity x R …Eq.4

 Effects of temperature on extrusion
 Decreased flow stress or deformation resistance due to increasing extrusion
temperature.
 Use minimum temperature to provide metal with suitable plasticity.
 The top working temperature should be safely below the melting point or hot-
shortness range.
 Oxidation of billet and extrusion tools.
 Softening of dies and tools.
 Difficult to provide adequate lubrication.

The temperature of the workpiece in metal working depends on;

1) The initial temperature of the tools and the materials

2) Heat generated due to plastic deformation
3) Heat generated by friction at the die/material interface (highest)
4) Heat transfer between the deforming material and the dies and surrounding
environment.

Note: Working temperature in extrusion is normally higher than used in forging and rolling, due to
relatively large compressive stresses in minimising cracking.
 Usually the temperature is highest at the material/tool interface due to friction.
 If we neglect the temperature gradients and the deforming material is considered as a
thin plate, the average instantaneous temperature of the deforming material at the
interface is given by

  ht 
T  T1  (To  T1 ) exp 
 c 
…Eq.6

Where To = temperature at the workpiece

T1 = temperature at the die
h = heat transfer coefficient between the material and the dies
 = material thickness between the dies.

If the temperature increase due to deformation and friction is included, the final average
material temperature Tm at a time t is

Tm  Td T f  T …Eq.7
Dieter p.524-526
Td = Temp for frictionless deformation process
Tf = Temp increase due to friction
 Ram speed, extrusion ratio and temperature

 A tenfold increase in the ram speed results in about a 50% increase in the extrusion
pressure.
 Low extrusion speeds lead to greater cooling of the billet.
 The higher the temperature of the billet, the greater the effect of (low extrusion
speed on the) cooling of the billet.
 Therefore, high extrusion speeds are required only for high-strength alloys that
need high extrusion temperature.
 The selection of the proper extrusion speed and temperature is best determined
by trial and error for each alloy and billet size.
 Relationships between extrusion ratio, temperature and pressure

 For a given extrusion pressure, extrusion ratio R increases with increasing

extrusion temperature.

 For a given extrusion temperature, a larger extrusion ratio R can be obtained

with a higher extrusion pressure.

Extrusion temperature Extrusion ratio (R)

Extrusion pressure

Relationships between extrusion speed and heat dissipation

• extrusion speeds , heat dissipation , allowable extrusion ratio

• extrusion speeds , heat dissipation , allowable extrusion ratio

 Deformation in extrusion, lubrication and defects
(a) Low container friction and a well-
lubricated billet – nearly homogeneous
deformation.
b) Increased container wall friction,
producing a dead zone of stagnant metal
at corners which undergoes little
deformation.
Essentially pure elongation in the centre
and extensive shear along the sides of
the billet. The latter leads to redundant
work
c) For high friction at the container -billet
interface, metal flow is concentrated
toward the centre and an internal shear
plane develops – due to cold container. In
the sticky friction, the metal will
separate internally along the shear zone.
A thin skin will be left in the container
and a new metal surface is obtained.
d) Low container friction and a well
lubricated billet in indirect extrusion
 homogeneous deformation.
 Hot extrusion lubricants

 Low shear strength.

 Stable enough to prevent breakdown at high temperature.
 Molten glass is the most common lubricant for steel and nickel based alloys (high
temp extrusion).

Ugine-Sejournet process

Still unmolten
 Graphite-based lubricants are also be used glass padding

at high extrusion temperature.

 Copper alloys, titanium alloys, alloy steels,
Chamber

stainless steels, and tool steels are RAM

extruded using lubrication. Billet

Ugine-Sejournet process
Molten glass

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 Ugine-Sejournet process Ugine-Sejournet Still unmolten
process glass padding

 The billet is heated in an inert atmosphere and Chamber

coated with glass powder before being pressed. RAM

Besides, a glass pad is placed between the die and Billet

the billet to provide the main source of lubricant.

Molten glass
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 This glass coating is softened during extrusion to provide a lubricant film (~25 micron
thick), which serves not only as a lubricant but also a thermal insulator to reduce
heat loss to the tools.
 The coating thickness depends on a complex interaction between the optimum
lubricant, the temperature and the ram speed.

 Lubricant film must be complete and continuous to be successful, otherwise defects

such as surface crack will result.

too low ram speed  thick lubricant coatings with low initial extrusion pressure limit
the length of extrusions.
too high ram speed  dangerously thin coatings.
 Non-Lubricated Hot Extrusion

 No lubrication is used on the billet,

container, or die for reducing
frictional stresses.
It has the ability to produce very
complex sections with excellent
surface finishes and low dimensional
tolerances.
Solid and hollow dies with flat shear
faces are typically used.
 Analysis of direct extrusion by slab method

In radial direction:
α px px cos    sin 
α x

x px cos   px sin 

px  px tan
p rx  p x ( 1   t a n  )
 Analysis of direct extrusion by slab method
Deformation inside die region:
The metal flow in wire drawing and forward extrusion is similar. The main difference is
that in wire drawing the wire is pulled through the die while in extrusion it is pushed.
The die angles in extrusion is very large as compared to those used in wire drawing.
The equilibrium of forces in axial direction after simplification by assuming  x  px
gives,
dR dR
dp ex  2 pex  2.p x( .cot   1) (1) (Neglect terms with more than one differential)
R R
The radial pressure, prx, is given by, p rx  p x (1  .tan  ) (2) (Refer previous slide)

where px is the die pressure..

The yield condition now becomes, p rx  pe x   0 (3)
Putting eqn (2) and (3) in (1) gives, dp ex 2
 dR (4)
( A  1 ) . p ex  A.  0 R
Here A  .cot   1
1  .tan

1
Integrating eqn. (4) gives, ln[( A 1) p ex  Ao ]  2 ln R  C (5)
A 1
Evaluating ‘C’: at R = R2, pex = 0. Put this in eqn. (5), to get ‘C’.

1
C ln( A 0 )  2 ln R2
A 1
Put the value of ‘C’ in (5),

  
2( A1) 
A R .cot  1
p ex   0   1 Here A  (6)
A 1  R2  1  .tan


The strain hardening of metal can be considered (in σ0 of (6)) by taking an average
yield strength like   (01  02) where σ01, σ02 are yield strengths before and after
0
extrusion. 2

Another method is by knowing the strain attained after extrusion using any flow
curve eqn.

B.L.Juneja, Fundamental of metal forming processes,2ed

 Extrusion defects
1) Inhomogeneous deformation
2) Surface cracking
3) Internal Cracking
4) Piping Defect
5) Variations in structure and properties
6) Hot shortness
 Extrusion defects
1) Inhomogeneous deformation  direct extrusion produces the dead zone along the
outer surface of the billet due to the movement of the metal in the centre being higher
than the periphery.
•After 2/3 of the billet is extruded, the outer surface of the billet (normally with
oxidised skin) moves toward the centre and extrudes through the die, resulting in
internal oxide stringers - transverse section can be seen as an annular ring of oxide.

Container wall friction Inhomogeneous

deformation
 If lubricant film is carried into the interior of the extrusion along the shear bands,
this will show as longitudinal laminations in a similar way as oxide.
Solutions:
 Discard the remainder of the billet (~30%) where the surface oxide begins to enter
the die  not economical.
 Use a follower block with a smaller diameter of the die to scalp the billet and the
oxidised layer remains in the container (in brass extrusion).
2) Surface cracking , ranging from a badly roughened surface to repetitive transverse
cracking called fir-tree cracking , see Fig. This is due to longitudinal tensile stresses
generated as the extrusion passes through the die.

Surface cracks from heavy die friction in extrusion

 In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually is intergranular and is associated with hot

shortness.

 The most common case is too high ram speed for the extrusion temperature.

 At lower temperature, sticking in the die land and the sudden building up of pressure

and then breakaway will also cause transverse cracking.

 Surface Cracking:
Surface cracks are developed due to

• High extrusion temperature

• High ram speed
• High Friction

• Occurs at High temperature such as Hot shortness

• Can also occur at low temperature (if lubrication is
broken down)
• These cracks are intergranular
 3) Internal Cracking:

Cracks are developed in the center of extruded material

at low extrusion ratios and low friction.
This is also named as
 Center Cracking
 Center Burst
 Chevron Cracking
 Arrow head Cracking

These are hard to detect in the material

• It occurs due to difference in velocity and tensile stresses in center of
the material

• These can be prevented by using appropriate

 die angle
 Friction
 Extrusion Ratio

 Relatively high friction (at a the tool-billet interface)  a sound product.

 Low friction  centre burst.
4) Piping Defect:

• It occurs when one-quarter of the diameter of the billet remains

in the container for extrusion  rapid radial flow of metal into
the die results in the creation of axial hole or funnel
• It is also known as:
 Tail pipe
 Fish Tailing

• Propagates as Funnel Shaped Void.

5) Variations in structure and properties within the extrusions due to non-
uniform deformation for example at the front and the back of the extrusion in
both longitudinal and transverse directions.

• Regions of exaggerated grain growth, see Fig, due to high hot working temperature.

Extrusion direction

Grain growth

200 m
6) Hot shortness (in aluminium extrusion).

Hot shortness

High temperatures generated cause incipient

melting, which causes cracking.
 Hydrostatic extrusion

 The billet in the container is surrounded

with fluid media, is also called
hydrostatics medium.
 The billet is forced through the die by
a high hydrostatic fluid pressure.
 The rate, with which the billet moves when
pressing in the direction of the die, is thus
not equal to the ram speed, but is
proportional to the displaced
hydrostatics medium volume.
 The billet should have large length-to-
Hydrostatic extrusion
diameter ratio and may have an
irregular cross section.
Advantages and disadvantages in hydrostatic extrusion

Advantages:
• Eliminating the large friction force between the
billet and the container wall extrusion pressure vs
ram travel curve is nearly flat.
• Possible to use dies with a very low semicone
angle (€ ~ 20 o)
• Achieving of hydrodynamic lubrication in the die.

Limitations:
• Not suitable for hot-working due to pressurised liquid.
• A practical limit on fluid pressure of around 1.7 GPa currently exists
because of the strength of the container.
• The liquid should not solidify at high pressure, this limits the obtainable
extrusion ratios,
• Mild steel  R should be less than 20:1
• Aluminium  R can be achieved up to 200:1.
 References

 Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition, McGraw-Hill,

ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
 Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials, 1990, Butterworth
Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.
 Beddoes, J. and Bibbly M.J., Principles of metal manufacturing process, 1999,
Arnold, ISBN 0-470-35241-8.
 Metal forming processes, Prof Manas.
 Images, if not referred, are from Google search.