MOBILE

COMMUNICATION
TA1

APTrg
EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION -
PRESENT STATUS
Emergency Communication is provided by
portable control phones (PCPs) using
following means:

a) Hooking on the overhead control alignment in

non-RE area;

b) Provision of emergency sockets in RE area.

 DISADVANTAGES
(a) The Driver/Guard have to carry the cumbersome telescopic
masts and the PCP sets;

(b) Hooking up of the telescopic mast on the overhead alignment is a difficult

procedure;

(c) In some cases, overhead alignment may be far away from the
track.

(d) In RE area, Driver and Guard have to walk about 500 meters for establishing
emergency communication.

(e) The emergency sockets and posts are prone to vandalism

(f) Emergency communication is initiated only from the site of emergency by
driver /guard of the affected train.

(g) The Section Controller/Emergency Controller is not able to contact the train
crew in moving conditions.

(h) The emergency communication is initiated only in static condition after the
trains come to a halt and not in mobile conditions.

(i) All emergency calls are directed to the Control office and not the nearest
Station Master.

(j) SOS facility is not available.

(k) The weight of the Emergency Control phones is fairly heavy.

WHY TRAIN RADIO COMMUNICATION
 Absence of mobile communication may cause the following
situations into accidents or detention to trains:
a) Accidents/unusual situation due to landslides, floods,
obstructions on track causing unsafe conditions;

b) Robbery / thefts in trains;

c) Carriage & wagon problems due to train parting, hanging parts;

d) Locomotives failure;

e) Chain pulling etc.

 NEED FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION
MTRC provides capability to provide/establish the following modes of
communication:
a) Driver to Control;
b) Guard to Control;
c) Driver to Station Master;
d) Driver to Guard;
e) Guard to train crew.
Also provides communication from:
a) Maintenance staff to Control;
b) Maintenance staff to Station Master.
c) Maintenance staff to Driver.
d) Maintenance staff to Guard.
e) SOS signal to all in vicinity.
INTRODUCTION OF MOBILE
COMMUNICATION ON IR
 Mughalsarai — Howrah Section
Train Radio Communication was provided for the first time on
Indian Railways on MGS-HWH section in 1980 as a means to
provide Block working and Emergency communication

Solution to thefts/vandalism of cables and emergency sockets

The system provides simplex communication from the Driver/Guard

to the Controller.

The system operated in VHF band (147.975MHz) with 18 GHz

microwave system acting as communication backbone
 SHORTCOMINGS

Operated in VHF band and as such there were problems and

complaints of noise due to electrical interference.

The system also had the deficiency of

a)non-availability of selective calling, and

b)channel blocking due to shortage of channels

 NAGPUR — ITARSI SECTION
OFC Communication was planned in Nagpur – Durg - Itarsi Section during the year
l985-86 to provide control communication & block working

Mobile Train Radio system was installed in this section as a solution to provide
emergency control communication.

Catered for full Duplex Communication System between the Driver/Guard and
Control. However, due to technical problems of frequency switching, the system
could provide communication only between Driver/Guard to Control and not
between Driver and Guard.

The mobile Train Radio system worked on 314-322 MHz band with OFC
communication system acting as a backbone
 DELHI — MUGHALSARAI SECTION
The first Mobile Train Radio Communication on Indian Railways in
real sense

System catered for full duplex communication between

Driver/Guard and Controller

The mobile system operates in 314-322 MHz band and the

communication backbone works in 2.1-2.5 GHz UHF band, now
shifted to digital microwave in 7 GHz band.
SHORTCOMINGS/LIMITATIONS OF THE EXISTING
MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
 Nagpur - Itarsi Section & Delhi - Mughalsarai section

a) All locos were not provided with the Mobile Communication equipment

b) The Guards were not provided with the communication equipment because
of shortage of equipment and lack of power supply arrangements in the Brake
Van

c) Special indigenous arrangements for wiring of loco, had to be made for

installation of the equipment in the loco, resulting in failures

d) There were some blank zones due to inadequate coverage

e) The system was not provided on the entire run of the train and the loco
equipment was to be loaded/removed in mid run.
f) Communication between driver and guard was not implemented.

g) Direct communication to the nearest SM was not possible.

h) SOS Emergency call from Driver to all the mobile sets was not
possible.

i) Provision of using the system for communication to passengers on

train was not planned.
UNIVERSAL EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
(UEC)
The system was indigenously developed and was designed to provide
emergency communication between:

i) Driver and Guard of the Train and vice versa;

ii) Driver and station master of the nearest station and vice versa;

iii) Guard and station master of the nearest station and vice versa;

iv) Driver/Guard of a train to another Driver/Guard in vicinity of 5Km.

v) Driver/Guard of a train to section controller through manual switching at

base station.
vi) SOS signal to all trains/stations equipped with mobile sets in vicinity of 5.0
Km/ 7.5 Km of distress signal.
The UEC system consists of
a) suitable VHF base stations installed at all Railway stations
b) suitable mobile & handheld sets provided to the drivers and guards
respectively.

The mode of communication was Simplex and was feasible in both static as well
as running conditions of the train

The system operated in VHF frequency range i.e. 146.2-151.45 MHz or 159.6-
162.45 MHz band with minimum of two channels in either of these two bands

The base station consisted of 40W VHF equipment along with Omni-directional
antenna (Ground plane) fixed at a suitable height
 PRESENT STATUS
After the GAISAL Accident in 1999, Board have taken a decision to provide full
duplex Mobile Train Radio Communication on A, B & C routes on Indian
Railways. It has also been decided to provide Universal Emergency
Communication on D, D (Spl.), E & E (Spl.) routes.

The following factors should be considered so that deficiencies/short-comings

are taken care of :

a) Technology based on open/standard architecture should be selected so that

the system can be seamlessly extended and multi vendor sources are available;

b) Loco equipment should be made an integral part of the loco at the time of
manufacturing itself
c) The practice of loading and removal of loco equipment should be stopped.

d) Adequate number of mobile equipment should be catered for so that all the
communication requirements are catered for.

e) The backbone communication whether Radio or Optical Fibre based should

be reliable and cover the entire run with no dark zones.

f) With the introduction of Radio based Signaling, the system should have the
capability of integrating both the Signaling and Telecommunication
applications.

g) The system should be based on digital technology.

h) Communication to passengers on the trains should also be catered in the

system.
Vide, RB letter No.95/Tele/MW/5/ Pt. New Delhi, dated
10.09.1999, Board had decided that Mobile Train Radio
Communication (MTRC) system may be provided on ‘A’, ‘B’ and
‘C’ routes.
Proposal was during Works Programme 2000-2001.
GSM based MTRC system is being introduced on A,B,C, Routes on
IR for communication between train crew and stationary
operating staff such as station masters, controllers, maintenance
staff etc.

Work for over 3200 route kilometers have been sanctioned on

Northern, North Central, Eastern , East Central and North East
Frontier Railways
This system has been successfully commissioned on Howrah-
Pradhankunta (260 RKMs) and Mathura-Jhansi (270 RKMs).
Installation of the system on Delhi-Ambala (198 RKMs) has been
completed and it is being commissioned.
Guwahati - New Bogaigaon - Katihar/Malda Town (681 R kms) of
Northeast Frontier Railway has been completed and is working
satisfactorily
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)
COMMUNICATION
 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF) MOBILE RADIO
COMMUNICATION

The frequency band of VHF Communication is 30 to

300 MHz. The frequency allotted by WPC (Wireless
Planning and Coordination wing of ministry of
communication) in VHF for Indian Railways are in the
band 146 to 174 MHz.
One spot frequency is used for each channel
 Applications of VHF Communication on IR
• Communication during Maintenance and
Constructional Blocks
• Yard communication
• Communication in the train between Guard & Driver
• Mobile Communication between moving train/vehicle
with fixed location (Station) or another moving train/
vehicle.
• Emergency Communication
• ART equipped with hand held and base station
• VHF sets.
 Modes of operation
•Simplex --- One way radio communication i.e, either
trans or receive
•Half-duplex--- Both way radio communication, ie we
can trans and receive but one at a time
(because the same frequency is used
for both trans and receive)
•Full Duplex--- Both way radio communication
simultaneously. (Trans and receive
frequencies are different)
VHF RADIO SPECIFICATIONS (GENERAL)
Modes of Propagation:
Line of sight waves,
Reflection & scattering of waves

Channel capacity:
Single channel/Four channel/Sixteen channel for
Voice or Low speed Data or both.
 . TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
Walkie -Talkie ( Hand Held) Set - 1W/2W/ 5W

Mobile Sets –
Output power is 25 Watt,
Operates on 12V battery

Base Station –
Installed at desired location,
Operating on AC Mains or by 12V battery.
 Antennas
External antenna with feeder cable connector mounted on a
mast (Roof top) needed

Antennas used are

Whip Antenna for portable sets,
Ground Plane (GP) Antenna for base radio equipment

Feeder cable: 50 Ohms Unbalanced Coaxial cable

 COMMUNICATION RANGE

Depends upon terrain.

Average range of a
Walkie -Talkie (Hand Held set) - 1 to 2 km.
Mobile Set- Upto 15 km
Base Station - upto 50 Kms. When antenna used
are directional & fixed at the height of 15 to 20 m.
S.No. Frequency SM at Station to Driver & Shunting Engineering Electrical S&T deptt. Commercial RPF Mechanical To be used for
in MHz all stns. LC gate Guard /Operating deptt. deptt. deptt. deptt.

1 146.400 X Security Department

2 147.975 ART Frequency Accident Site Communication
3 148.100 X Mechanical Department
4 149.750 X Engineering Department
5 150.100 XC F1 – for PLC; 1st section of Straight Section
6 150.150 XC F2 – for PLC; 2nd section of Straight Section
7 159.600 XC F3 – for PLC; 3rd section of Straight Section
8 159.650 X S&T Department
9 159.700 XC XC Communication with LC gate
10 160.400 X X X X X X X X Common Frequency
11 160.550 XE XE Train Escorting Purpose
12 161.150 X X Driver & Guard communication
13 161.425 X Electrical Department
14 162.100 X X Shunting & Yard Communication
15 146.200 XC F4 – for PLC; 1st section For Junction
16 148.050 XC F5 – for PLC; 2nd section Station
(Direction 1)
17 149.500 XC F6 – for PLC; 3rd section
18 149.550 XC F7 – for PLC; 1st section For Junction
19 151.400 XC F8 – for PLC; 2nd section Station
(Direction 2)
20 151.450 XC F9 – for PLC; 3rd section
Note:
X - Channel programmed
XC - Channel programmed with CTCSS/MF coding.
XE - For Train duties only.
 To know the Month & Year of Radio (Motorola)

Let us assume that Radio Serial Number is 672TLQF961.

The first four characters represent Year Code Year Year Code Year
A 2000 K 2009
the “Accounting Product Code”. B 2001 L 2010
C 2002 M 2011

The fifth character represents the D 2003 N 2012

E 2004 P 2013
Year of Manufacturing. F 2005 Q 2014
G 2006 R 2015

Here fifth character is L, it H 2007 S 2016

represents year 2010. J 2008 T 2017

The Sixth Character Represents The Month Of Manufacturing.
Here Sixth character is Q, it represents Month August
Month Code Month Month Code Month

A&B January N&P July

C&D February Q&R August

E&F March S&T September

G&H April U&V October
J&K May W&X November
L&M June Y&Z December

The last four characters represents the Serial number of Radio.

Note: Please note that I & O are omitted in the year and month code.
 Finding Battery Month & Year of manufacturing(Motorola)

Let us assume Battery SL.No. is 841 .

First digit (8) represents Year Of Manufacturing.

The Last Two Digits (41) represents Week Of Manufacturing.

With the above example, The Battery Is Manufactured In 41st Week Of The Year
2008.
As per the guidelines of the Railway Board and RDSO, the VHF
radio set can be replaced within 5 to 7 year from the date of
manufacture and VHF battery can be replaced after 1½ year from
the date of manufacture
 LIMITATIONS OF VHF COMMUNICATION

-Short distance coverage

-Blank Zones occur due to terrain, high rise buildings & other structures

-Simplex/Half Duplex mode of working

-Maintenance of rechargeable batteries

-The set requires more than one battery set for continuous operation.

-Interference due to other user having adjacent frequencies.

-Effect of prevailing noise in the surrounding

 GSM
History
 WHY GSM?
The GSM study group aimed to provide the followings through the GSM:
· Improved spectrum efficiency.

· International roaming.

· Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)

· High-quality speech

· Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

and other telephone company services.

· Support for new services.

Features of GSM
Compatibility
Noise Robust
Increased Capacity & Flexibility
Use of Standard Open Interfaces
Improved Security & Confidentiality
Cleaner Handovers
Subscriber Identification
ISDN Compatibility
Enhanced Range of Services
 Development of the GSM Standard
1982: Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) 1992: Official commercial launch of GSM
created service in Europe. First Launch in
Finland
1984: Description of GSM features
1993: The GSM-MoU has 62 signatories in 39
1985: List of recommendations settled countries worldwide. First GSM-1800
network launched
1987: Initial MoU (Memorandum of
1995: Specifications of GSM phase 2 are
Understanding) aside the drafting of
frozen. First GSM-1900 network
technical specifications was signed by
launched
network operators of 13 countries:
1999: GSM MoU joins 3GPP (UMTS)
GPRS Trials begins
1988: Validation and trials, of the radio interface.
2000: 480M GSM subscribers Worldwide
1991: First system trials are demonstrated at the First GPRS Networks roll out
Telecom 91 exhibition.
End 2002: 792M GSM subscribers Worldwide
 GSM Specifications
12 SERIES 01 SERIES
OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE GENERAL 02 SERIES
SERVICE ASPECTS
11 SERIES
EQUIPMENT AND TYPE 03 SERIES
APPROVAL SPECIFICATIONS NETWORK ASPECTS

04 SERIES
10 SERIES MS-BSS INTERFACE AND
SERVICE INTERWORKING PROTOCOLS

09 SERIES 05 SERIES
NETWORK PHYSICAL LAYER ON THE
INTERWORKING RADIO PATH.

08 SERIES 07 SERIES 06 SERIES

TERMINAL ADAPTERS SPEECH CODING
BSS TO MSC INTERFACES FOR MOBILE STATIONS SPECIFICATIONS
From 2G to 3G

2G services 3G services
GPRS UMTS UMTS

Up to 160Kbps  Up to 2Mbps
  Up to 2Mbps
Internet services  Multimedia
  Internet
GSM services  VoiP
 R’97/98/99 (GSM)
 R’99 (3GPP)  R5 (3GPP)

E-GPRS GERAN
 Up to 384Kbps  Multimedia
 Internet services  VoiP
 R’99 (GSM)  R4/R5 (3GPP)
 What are the types in
GSM Network?
 GSM-900 (Channels 125 operating band 900Mhz carrier
spacing 200khz spacing 45Mhz)

 GSM -1800 (Channels 374 spacing 95Mhz)

 GSM -1900(Used in USA)

 Different Standards Worldwide
Carrier frequency = ARFCN = Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number
GSM - 900
The term GSM-900 is used for any GSM system which operates in any 900 MHz band.
P-GSM - 900
P-GSM-900 band is the primary band for GSM-900 Frequency band for primary GSM-900 (P-GSM-900) : 2 x 25 MHz
890 – 915 MHz for MS to BTS (uplink)
935 – 960 MHz for BTS to MS (downlink)
E-GSM - 900
In some countries, GSM-900 is allowed to operate in part or in all of the following extension band. E-GSM-900 (Extended GSM-900) band
includes the primary band (P-GSM-900) and the extension band :
880 – 890 MHz for MS to BTS (uplink)
925 – 935 MHz for BTS to MS (downlink)
R-GSM-900
R-GSM-900 (Railway GSM-900) band includes the primary band (P-GSM-900) and the following extension band:
876 – 880 MHz for MS to BTS (uplink)
921 – 925 MHz for BTS to MS (downlink)
Frequency & ARFCN

Ful(n) = 890.0 + (0.2) *n MHz

Fdl(n) = Ful + 45 MHz

where n =ARFCN ; 1  n  124

RF CONCEPTS
 Free-space
Designation Abbreviation Frequencies
Wavelengths
Very Low Frequency VLF 9 kHz - 30 kHz 33 km - 10 km
Low Frequency LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz 10 km - 1 km
Medium Frequency MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz 1 km - 100 m
High Frequency HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m
Very High Frequency VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz 1 m - 100 mm
Super High Frequency SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz 100 mm - 10 mm
Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz 10 mm - 1 mm
 RADIO WAVES

•Ground waves
•Sky waves
•Space waves
Factors affecting RF propagation

•Free space loss

•Multi path propagation
•Building & vehicle penetration
•Interference
•Fading of signal
 A directional antenna

An Omni-directional antenna
 2
CELLULAR CONCEPT
1 5

4 1

3 7

6 3
 WHY DO WE NEED CELLS?

 FREQUENCY (RESOURCE)
SCARCITY
Base Station
Base Station
 DEMAND FOR HIGHER Base Station
CAPACITY
Base Station

 COST EFFECTIVENESS Base Station

Base Station
 OBJECTIVES
Large subscriber capability:
The system should be capable of serving many thousands of mobile
users within the local serving area with a fixed no. of channels.

Spectrum utilization:
The multiple uses of the same channels in cells with in
geographical separation ensure that the radio spectrum is used
efficiently.

Nationwide compatibility:
The mobile users should be able to use their equipment also in other
areas that are served by different cellular systems.
Adaptability to traffic density:
Traffic density differs from one point to another in a cellular
coverage area. The capability to cope with different
traffic must be designed as inherent feature of the cellular
system.

Quality of service and affordability:

Since cost and economic considerations play a major role,
it must be affordable for general public.
The Cell
Cellular Radio involves dividing a large service area into regions called
“cells.”
Each cell has the equipment to switch, transmit and receive calls.
Cells - Reduce the need of High powered transmission
Cells - Conventionally regarded as being hexagonal, but in reality they are
irregularly shaped.
Cell shape is determined by the nature of the surrounding
area e.g. Hills , tall building etc.
• Hexagonal shaped cells are

artificial and cannot be generated

in the real world.

• This shape is chosen to simplify planning and design of a cellular system as hexagons fit together without any
overlap or gap in between them.

• Another advantage of using hexagons is that it approaches a circular shape which is the ideal power coverage
area.

• The real cell shape will keep changing due to prevailing conditions.

• If the Point of Transmission is at the centre of a Cell, the maximum Coverage Area is available from a Hexagonal
Cell i.e., this layout needs minimum number of Cells to cover a given Area, hence lesser number of Transmitting
Sites are needed
Cell Size
Large Cells Small Cells

35 Km Near about 1 KM

Remote Areas Urban Areas

High Transmission Power Low Transmission Power

Few subscribers Many Subscribers

MICRO CELL
Below Rooftop
~ Railway Platforms, Airports,
~ Busy Shopping Bazaar etc.

Low Tx Power
~ 1 Watt max.

Limited Coverage
~ 200m - 500m

Hotspot Solution

Special Algorithms for HO

61
 PICO CELLS
Inside offices, Buildings

Very Low Tx Power

~ Less than 1 Watt

Limited Coverage
~ 50 -100m

Capacity Solution

Special Algorithms for HO

Pico Cell

62
GSM - IN CELLULAR TELEPHONY
There are 124 carries in GSM Band. With each carrier carrying 8 timeslots, only
124 x 8 = 992 calls can be made!

Frequency Reuse is the solution

◦ Using same frequency channel to serve more than one call in the same
given area

Interference problems caused by mobile units using the same channel in

adjacent areas (cells) proved that all channels could not be reused in every
cell.

Areas (cells) have to be skipped before the same freq could be reused
The actual center to center distance of the adjacent hexagon is
√ 3R = (2R cos 300),
where R is the center to vertex distance.

The concept of number of cells per cluster is important for locating

co channel cell with in the cellular structure.

It can be shown that co channel reuse ratio

D/R = √ 3N
where N is Cluster size
 CELLULAR CONCEPTS
Q = D/R =  3N =  6 ( S/ I) -
where  is propagation constant
Much higher level of interference is tolerated if digital transmission is
used.
S / I  18 dB For Digital Cellular Mobile Systems.
N Q=D/R Higher Q – Less Interference.

1 1.73 Higher N
3 3.00 Larger Cluster Size.
4 3.46
7 4.58 Less Freq./ cell.
9 5.20 Lower Traffic Handling Capacity.
12 6.00
CELLULAR PRINCIPLE: Frequency Reuse

The same group of channels can be used in different cells that are far enough
away from each other so that their frequencies do not interfere
CELLULAR PRINCIPLE: Frequency Reuse

No similarly colored cells are adjacent, and therefore there are no

adjacent cells using the same channel.
 Performance/Capacity Trade Off
Higher values of N Lower values of N

Reduce co channel interference Increase co channel interference

Leads to more cells/cluster Leads to few cells/cluster

Less no. of chls/cells More no. of chls/cell

Less traffic handling capacity More traffic handling capacity
 Principle Of Sectorization
A Directional Antenna is a
better solution for reducing the
Co-channel Interference

Each Cell is divided into 3 or 6

Sectors and uses 3 or 6
Directional Antennas at the
Base Stations.

In practice, Sectored Cells with

120° Beam Antennas are used
 Principle Of Sectorization
Omni Directional Cells
120 degree Sectors
60 Degree sectors
◦ Each Sector in a Site has its own allocation of Radio Carriers
Advantage
◦ By frequent reuse of frequency more capacity can be achieved
Cell Sectorisation The picture can't be display ed.

The picture can't be display ed.

b2
The picture can't be display ed.

b1
a2 b3
a1 a3
OMNI CELL 120O CELLS
1 ANTENNA a6 a4 3 ANTENNAS
a5

60O CELLS
6 ANTENNAS
A three sectored cell
configuration

Single location

Antennas looking in three

directions
 GSM = 4/12 ;
4 Cell Pattern &
each cell with 3
sectors

7/21 = 7 Cell
Pattern & each cell
with 3 sectors
7/21
4/12
Sector Antennas reduce Co-channel Interference and improve
the mean S/N ratio for a given Reuse Factor (from 18 dB to
24dB).

But it reduces Trunking Efficiency, since each Sector gets less

number of Channels.

Practically, it does not create a problem, since less Interference

can reduce the Reuse factor, thereby improving the Trunking
Efficiency.
When the Traffic in a Cell increases to a situation where the
Quality of Service (QoS) is affected, Cells can be divided in to
smaller sizes.

The Cell-splitting concept allows a Low Demand Area to be

served by the Larger Cells and a High Demand Area to be Split
in to Smaller Cells
 CELL TYPES

• Macro cells: Very Large Radius (more than 35 kms)

• Micro cells: Medium Radius (upto 3 kms)

• Pico cells: Extremely Small Radius cells (for Indoor coverage)

• Umbrella cells: for fast moving vehicles (to avoid frequent handovers &
loading of the network)

CONTD
HANDOVER
 HANDOVER
A problem encountered in Cellular Communication is to provide continuation in
Communication for a subscriber, who moves from one Cell to another Cell.

No two adjacent Cells in a Cluster have the same Radio Channels.

So, Re-allocation of Radio channels must be fast and smooth.

This process is called Handover.

Processing Load per Subscriber on the system increases when Subscribers often
crosses Boundaries and cause frequent handoff of Calls between the Cells.

Practically, reduction of Cell Radius by 4 times increases Processing load

approximately by a factor of 10.
 Level at B

RSL
Level which HO occured

Handover time

Mechanism
BS1 BS2
A B
 Handovers
Hard Handover Soft Handover
Analog, TDMA and GSM CDMA

Break before Make Make before Break

HANDOVER TYPES
 HANDOVER
Intra-Cell Handover

BSC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Call is handed
BTS from timeslot 3 to timeslot 5

 Handover takes place in the same cell from one timeslot to another
timeslot of the same carrier or different carriers( but the same cell).
 Intra-cell handover is triggered only if the cause is interference.
 Intra-cell handover can be enabled or disabled in a cell.
 HANDOVER
Intra-BSC Handover

BSC1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BTS1
Call is handed from timeslot 3
of cell1 to timeslot 1 of cell2 .
Both the cells are controlled
by the same BSC.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 Handover takes place between different cell which are controlled by

the same BSC.
 HANDOVER
Inter-BSC Handover

BSS1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BTS1
MSC Call is handed from timeslot 3
of cell1 to timeslot 1 of cell2 .
Both the cells are controlled
by the different BSC.
BSS2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BTS2
 Handover takes place between different cell which are controlled by
the different BSC.
 HANDOVER
Inter-MSC Handover

MSC1 BSS1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BTS1 Call is handed from timeslot 3 of cell1 to

timeslot 1 of cell2 .
Both the cells are controlled by the
different BSC, each BSC being controlled
MSC2 BSS2 by different MSC.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BTS2
 Handover takes place between different cell which are controlled by
the different BSC and each BSC is controlled by different MSC.
Cleaner Handovers
The mobile measures up to 32 adjacent cells for
◦ Signal Strength (RxLevel)
◦ Signal Quality (RxQual)
◦ updated every 480 mS and sends to BTS
Handover is based on the following conditions:
◦ RxLevel
◦ Interference
◦ RxQual
◦ Timing Advance
◦ Power Budget
Interference - If signal level is high and still there is RXQUAL problem, then
the problem is because of interference.

RXQUAL - It is the receive quality. It ranges from 0 to 7 , 0 being the best and
7 the worst

RXLEV - It is the receive level. It varies from -47dBm to -110dBm.

Timing Advance - Ranges from 0 to 63.

Power budget - It is used to save the power of the MS.

MOBILE MAXIMUM RANGE

TIMIMG ADVANCE * BIT PERIOD* VELOCITY

RANGE=
2

TIMING ADVANCE = DELAY OF BITS (0-63)

BIT PERIOD= 577/156.25 = 3.693sec =3.693 * 10-6 sec
VELOCITY= 3 * 105 Km/sec
RANGE= 34.9 Km
POWER CONTROL
POWER CONTROL
 RF power control is employed to minimise the transmit power
required by MS or BS while maintaining the quality of the radio links.
 By minimising the transmit power levels, interference to co-channel
users is reduced.
 Power control is implemented in the MS as well as the BSS.
 Power control on the Uplink also helps to increase the battery life.
 Power received by the MS is continuously sent in the measurement
report.
 Similarly uplink power received from the MS by the BTS is measured
by the BTS.
 Complex algorithm evaluate this measurements and take a decision
subsequently reducing or increasing the power in the Uplink or the
downlink.
 DISCONTINUOUS TRANSMISSION (DTX)
DTX is a mechanism which allows the radio transmitter to be switched off (reduced
rate transmission (~ 500 bit/s) during silences )most of the time during speech pauses
for the following purposes:
• To save power in the MS
• To reduce the overall interference level on the air

The DTX mechanism requires the following functions

• A Voice Activity Detector on the transmit side
• Evaluation of the background acoustic noise on the transmit side, in order to
transmit characteristic parameters to the receive side
• Generation on the receive side of a similar noise, called comfort noise, during
periods where the radio transmission is cut
Frequency Hopping
 Frequency Hopping
Multipath Fading results in variations in signal strength which is known as Rayleigh
Fading.
Rayleigh Fading phenomenon is dependent on path difference and hence frequency of
reception.
A fast moving mobile may not experience severe effect of this fading since the path
difference is continuously changing.
A slow moving mobile ( or a halted mobile ) may experience severe deterioration in
quality.
But, if the frequency of reception is changed when this problem occurs, could solve it.
The fading phenomenon is fast and almost continuous, this means the frequency
change should also be continuous.
This process of continuously changing frequency is known as Frequency Hopping.
Frequency hopping is the technique of improving the S/N in a link by adding frequency
diversity.

The base station commands the mobile station to activate frequency hopping as the
mobile station moves towards the edge of a cell or into an area of high interference.

When frequency hopping is activated in the mobile station, the base station assigns the
mobile station a set of RF channels, rather than a single RF channel.

A frequency hopping algorithm is also assigned to the mobile and is used to inform the
mobile of the pattern of the available frequencies it is to use.
Frequency Hopping is done in both Uplink and Downlink .
Frequency is changed in every TDMA Frame
Mobile can Hop on maximum 64 frequencies
The sequence of Hopping can be Cyclic or Non-Cyclic
There are 63 Non-Cyclic Hopping sequences possible
Different Hopping sequence can be used in the same cell.
BCH Timeslot can never HOP, but the remaining Timeslots can very well
hop.
The advantages that frequency hopping offers are:
Improved voice quality and prevention of dropped calls in GSM
Improved data throughput in GPRS and EGPRS.
MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES
 In order for several links to be in progress simultaneously in
the same geographical area without mutual interference ,
multiple access techniques are deployed.
 The commonly used multiple access techniques are
– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA )
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA )
– Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA )
 FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access FDMA
 ( eg: GSM each Frequency channel is
Power
200KHz)

 TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access TDMA

 ( eg: GSM each frequency channel is divided Power
into 8 timeslots)

CDMA
 CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
 (eg: IS95- Each User data is coded with a Power

unique code)
Various Access Method
ARCHITECTURE OF A GSM NETWORK
Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks

PSTN
MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR
BTS
ME
SIM
PLMN

EIR HLR AUC

Internet

+
SD

Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.

 Network Structure

•GSM Service Area

•PLMN Service Area
•MSC Service Area
•Location Area
•Cells
Network Structure
GSM SERVICE AREA

PLMN SERVICE AREA

MSC SERVICE AREA

LOCATION AREA

CELLS
 SYSTEM ENTITY FUNCTIONS

Mobile station:

The mobile station represents the terminal

equipment used by cellular subscriber
supported by GSM system
 Functions of Mobile Station

•Voice and data transmission

•Frequency and time synchronization

•Monitoring of power and signal quality of the surrounding

cells

•Provision of location updates even during inactive state

•Equalization of multi path distortions

The MS consists of two entities

· Mobile Equipment (ME)

· Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

Mobile equipment (ME)
It is the mobile handset.
•The major components of the Handset are –
Transmitter,
Receiver,
Number Alignment Module,
Logic Unit,
Frequency Synthesizer,
 Antenna and
the required software.

– Identified by a unique International Mobile Equipment Identity

(IMEI) (different from the phone number)
Class Power O/p
1 20 W
2 8W
3 5W
Typical
4 2W
Settings
5 0.8 W
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
Contains subscriber-related information

A smart card that holds information required to identify a

particular subscription to a mobile service

Can be used with any approved GSM handset

Identified by a unique International Mobile Subscriber

Identity (IMSI)
(different from the phone number)
 COMPONENTS OF THE SIM CARD
Central processing unit (CPU)
intelligence of the chip
performs all the mathematical functions
takes all the decisions required by the SIM.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

sufficient memory to store the operating system (set of
commands that SIM understands)
contents of the ROM are permanent and it is not possible
to change them.
can be created as part of the manufacturing process.
Random Access Memory (RAM):
area of volatile memory
contents are lost each time the power is turned off.
The memory can be at least 256 KB.
Buffers incoming data as a scratch pad for calculations.

Electrically Erasable programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

Stores all the application data such as the operator’s specific
parameters and the subscriber’s data.
SIM
 Most of the data contained within the SIM is protected against
reading (eg Ki ) or alterations after the SIM is issued.
 Some of the parameters ( eg. LAI ) will be continuously updated to
reflect the current location of the subscriber.
 The SIM card can be protected by use of Personal Identity Number
( PIN ) password.
 The SIM is capable of storing additional information such as
accumulated call charges.
 MOBILE IDENTIFICATION NUMBERS

i) MSISDN (Mobile subscriber’s ISDN number)

ii) IMSI (International mobile subscriber’s identity)

iii) TMSI (Temporary mobile subscriber’s identity)

iv) MSRN (Mobile subscriber’s roaming number)

v) IMEI ( International Mobile subscriber’s equipment identity)

 MOBILE SUBSCRIBER’S ISDN (MSISDN) NUMBER
 Human identity used to call a MS
 The Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN) number is the telephone number of
the MS.
 This is the number a calling party dials to reach the subscriber.
 It is used by the land network to route calls toward the MSC.

Mobile Subscriber No.

CC--country code(allotted internationally)

NDC—Network destination code
SN--subscriber number
International mobile subscriber’s Identity (IMSI)
The IMSI is an unique identity which is used internationally
and used within the network to identify the mobile
subscribers.

The IMSI is stored on the SIM, the HLR, VLR and AUC database

IMSI finds its use in call routing.

MCC--Mobile country code
-- identifies the country of domicile of the subscriber.
MNC--Mobile network code
-- identifies the home GSM PLMN of the mobile subscriber.
MSIN--Mobile subscriber identification number-- identifies the MS within a GSM PLMN.
TEMPORARY MOBILE SUBSCRIBERS IDENTITY ( TMSI )
 The GSM system can also assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity (TMSI).
 After the subscriber's IMSI has been initialized on the system,
the TMSI can be used for sending messages backwards and
forwards across the network to identify the subscriber.
 The system automatically changes the TMSI at regular intervals,
thus protecting the subscriber from being identified by someone
attempting to monitor the radio channels.
 The TMSI is a local number and is always allocated by the VLR.
 The TMSI is maximum of 4 octets.
 MOBILE STATION ROAMING NUMBER (MSRN)
Suitable for the purpose of call processing when the customer roams in
any other VLR area having connectivity with his home network.

•The HLR of the roaming subscribers request the visited VLR for
allotment of the temporary number.

•Accordingly the visited VLR generates MSRN.

•GMSC (gateway MSC) uses it for routing of calls to this customer.

•MSRN is stored in visited VLR, HLR.

 INTERNATIONAL MOBILE EQUIPMENT IDENTITY (IMEI)
•Provided to the mobile equipment through a unique code for
its authentication and identification

•The code is entered in SIM card of the user MS

•Also recorded in the data base of the EIR of mobile switching

sub system.

•During the course of call processing, the IMEI entered in SIM is

compared with the corresponding IMEI recorded in EIR.
 6 digits 2 digits 6 digits unit length

TAC is 6 digits and approved by a national body.

FAC is 2 digits and is provided by the manufacturer.
SNR is 6 digits provided by manufacturer in serial sequence.
SP is spare digit of unit length.