Bridge Design

III. Loads on Bridge

Outline
‡ Loads on Bridges ‡ Design Lane
‡ Typical Loads ‡ AASHTO HL93 Loads
ƒ Truck
„ Dead Load
ƒ Tandem
„ Live Load
ƒ Uniform Load
‡ Live Load of Vehicle
‡ LL Combinations
‡ Pedestrian Load
‡ LL Placement
‡ Dynamic Load Allowance
ƒ Influence Line
‡ Other Loads ƒ Design Equation
„ Fatigue ƒ Design Charts
„ Wind ‡ Multiple Presence
„ Earthquake ‡ Distribution to Girders
„ …
‡ Load and Resistance Factor
Design
Loads on Bridge
Loads on Bridge
‡ DD = downdrag (wind) ‡ BR = breaking force of vehicle
‡ DC = dead Load of ‡ CE = centrifugal force of vehicle (at curves)
structural and ‡ CR = creep of concrete
nonstructural components ‡ CT = vehicle collision force (on bridge or at
piers)
‡ DW = dead load of wearing ‡ CV = vessel collision force (bridge piers over
surface river)
‡ EH = earth pressure ‡ EQ = earthquake
(horizontal) ‡ FR = friction
‡ EL = secondary forces such as ‡ IC = ice
from posttensioning ‡ IM = dynamic load of vehicles
‡ LL = live load of vehicle (static)
‡ ES = earth surcharge load
‡ LS = live load surcharge
(vertical)
‡ PL = pedestrian load
‡ EV = earth pressure (vertical) ‡ SE = settlement
‡ SH = shrinkage of concrete
‡ TG = load due to temperature differences
‡ TU = load due to uniform temperature
‡ WA = water load/ stream pressure
‡ WL = wind on vehicles on bridge
‡ WS = wind load on structure
 Typical Loads
Dead Loads: DC/DW
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
Pedestrian Load: PL
Dynamic (Impact) Loads: IM
Dead Load: DC
‡ Dead load includes the self weight of:
„ structural components such as girder, slabs, cross beams, etc…
„ nonstructural components such as medians, railings, signs, etc…
‡ But does not include the weight of wearing surface (asphalt)
‡ We can estimate dead load from its density

Material Density (kg/m3)

Concrete (Normal Weight.) 2400
Concrete (Lightweight) 1775-1925
Steel 7850
Aluminum Alloy 2800
Wood 800-960
Stone Masonry 2725
Dead Load of Wearing Surface: DW
‡ It is the weight of the wearing surface
(usually asphalt) and utilities (pipes,
lighting, etc…)
‡ Different category is needed due to
large variability of the weight compared
with those of structural components
(DC)
„ Asphalt surface may be thicker than
designed and may get laid on top of old
layer over and over
‡ Density of asphalt paving material
= 2250 kg/m3
‡ Average Thickness of asphalt on bridge
= 9 cm
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
‡ Live load is the force due to ‡ The effect of live load on the
vehicles moving on the bridge bridge structures depends on
‡ There are several types of many parameters including:
vehicles „ span length
„ Car „ weight of vehicle
„ Van „ axle loads (load per wheel)
„ Buses „ axle configuration
„ Trucks „ position of the vehicle on the
„ Semi-Trailer bridge (transverse and
longitudinal)
„ Special vehicles
„ number of vehicles on the bridge
„ Military vehicles
(multiple presence)
„ girder spacing
„ stiffness of structural members
(slab and girders)
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
Bridge LL vs. Building LL
‡ BRIDGE ‡ BUILDING

‡ LL is very heavy (several tons per ‡ LL is not very heavy, typical

wheel) 300-500 kg/m2
‡ LL can be series of point loads (wheel ‡ LL is assumed to be uniformly
loads of trucks) or uniform loads (loads distributed within a span
of smaller vehicles)
‡ Need to consider the placement within ‡ Do not generally consider
a span to get the maximum effect placement of load within a span
‡ Loads occur in one direction within ‡ Loads are transferred in to 2
lanes directions
‡ Need to consider also the placement of ‡ Need to consider various
loads in multiple spans (for continuous placements of loads for the
span bridges) entire floor
‡ Dynamic effects of live load cannot be ‡ Do not generally consider
ignored dynamic/impact effect of live
loads
 Analysis Strategy for LL

Place them Moment/ Shear

Various to get Consider Distribute from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each girder design of girders
span
Design Truck
Design Tandem
Uniform Lane Load
Design Lane
‡ Need to know how many lanes there is on the bridge
‡ Design Lane  Actual Traffic Lane
3.0 m 3.3 m to 4.6 m (3.6 m recommended)
‡ Number of Design Lanes = Roadway width/ 3.6 m
• No. of Actual Traffic Lane
‡ Number of Lane must be an integer (1,2,3,…) – there is no fraction of lane
(no 2.5 lanes, for example)
‡ For roadway width from 6 m to 7.2 m, there should be 2 design lanes, each
equal ½ of the roadway width

roadway width
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
‡ For design purpose, we are interested the kind of vehicle that produce the
worst effect
‡ AASHTO has 3 basic types of LL called the HL-93 loading (stands for
Highway Loading, year 1993)
„ Design truck
„ Design tandem
„ Uniform loads
1. Design Truck
‡ The design truck is called HS-20
(stands for Highway Semi-Trailer
with 20-kips weight on first two
HS-20 axles)
‡ Weight shown are for each one
axle = 2 wheels
‡ Total Wt = 325 kN ~ 33 t.
‡ Distance between second and
third axles may be varied to
produce maximum effect
‡ Need to multiply this load by
dynamic allowance factor (IM)
 2. Design Tandem
‡ Two axle vehicle with 110 kN
110 kN 110 kN
on each axle
per axle per axle ‡ Need to multiply this load by
PROFILE dynamic allowance factor (IM)
‡ Lead to larger moment than the
HS20 truck for simple-support
spans less than about 13.4 m

55 kN 55 kN

Loading Traffic Directions

Lane 1.8 m TOP
VIEW

55 kN 55 kN

1.2 m
3. Uniform Lane Loading
‡ Uniform load of 9.3 kN/m acting over a tributary width of 3 m. (i.e. the
load is 3.1 kN/m2)
‡ May be apply continuously or discontinuously over the length of the
bridge to produce maximum effect
‡ No dynamic allowance factor (IM) for this load
 Analysis Strategy for LL

Place them Moment/ Shear

Various to get Consider Distribute from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each girder design of girders
span

Load Combinations
Transverse Placement
Longitudinal Placement
Live Load Combinations
‡ 3 ways to add the design truck, design tandem, and uniform load together
„ Combination 1: one HS20 truck on top of a uniform lane load per design lane
„ Combination 2: one Design Tandem on top of a uniform lane load per design
lane
„ Combination 3: (for negative moments at interior supports of continuous
beams) place two HS20 design truck, one on each adjacent span but not less
than 15 m apart (measure from front axle of one truck to the rear axle of
another truck), with uniform lane load. Use 90% of their effects as the design
moment/ shear
‡ The loads in each case must be positioned such that they produce
maximum effects (max M or max V)
‡ The maximum effect of these 3 cases is used for the design
Live Load Placement
‡ Need to consider two dimensions
„ Transversely (for designs of slabs and overhangs)

roadway width

„ Longitudinally (for design of main girder)

Live Load Placement - Transverse
‡ The design truck or tandem shall be positioned transversely such that the
center of any wheel load is not closer than:
„ 30 cm from the face of the curb or railing for the design of the deck overhang
„ 60 cm from the edge of the design lane for the design of all other components

Minimum distance
min. 2' from curb = 60 cm

‡ Note that if the sidewalk is not separated by a crashworthy traffic barrier,

must consider the case that vehicles can be on the sidewalk
Live Load Placement - Longitudinal
‡ Need to place the LL along the span such that it produces the maximum
effect
‡ For simple 1-point loading, the maximum moment occurs when the load is
placed at the midspan

P
Point of Max
Moment

L/2 L/2
‡ However, truck load is a group of concentrated loads. It is not clear where
to place the group of loads to get the maximum moment
‡ REMEMBER: MAXIMUM MOMENT DOES NOT ALWAYS OCCURS
AT MIDSPAN !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Live Load Placement - Longitudinal
‡ Methods of finding maximum moment and shear in span
„ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous spans
„ Design Equation – Simple span only
„ Design Chart – Simple span only
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Influence line is a graphical method for finding the variation of the
“structural response” at a point as a concentrated live load moves across
the structure
„ Structural response can be support reaction, moment, shear, or displacement
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Müller-Breslau Principle: “If a function at a point on a beam, such as
reaction, or shear, or moment, is allowed to act without restraint, the
deflected shape of the beam, to some scale, represent the influence line of
the function.
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Influence line is a powerful visualization tool for the effects of live load
placements to the structural response
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ For Statically Indeterminate Structures, the Müller-Breslau Principle also
holds
‡ “If a function at a point on a beam, such as reaction, or shear, or moment,
is allowed to act without restraint, the deflected shape of the beam, to
some scale, represent the influence line of the function”
‡ For indeterminate structures, the influence line is not straight lines!
Live Load Placement – Influence Line
Live Load Placement - Longitudinal
‡ Methods of finding maximum moment and shear in span
„ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous spans
„ Design Equation – Simple span only
„ Design Chart – Simple span only
Live Load Placement – Design Equation
‡ Another Method: Using Barre’s Theorem for simply
supported spans
„ The absolute maximum moment in the span occurs under the load
closet to the resultant force and placed in such a way that the
centerline of the span bisects the distance between that load and the
resultant

Resultant 0.73 m 0.30 m

Resultant

145 kN 145 kN 110 kN 110 kN

35 kN

L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2

HS20 Tandem
Point of Max Point of Max
Moment Moment
 Live Load Placement – Design Equation
Resultant 0.73 m Resultant 0.30 m

145 kN 145 kN 110 kN 110 kN

35 kN

L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2

HS20 Tandem
Point of Max Point of Max
Moment Moment

172.1 19.8
M max 81.25l   387 kN-m M max 55l   66 kN-m
l l
Mmax occurs at a section under middle Mmax occurs at a section under one of
axle located a distance 0.73 m from the axle located a distance 0.30 m from
midspan midspan
Live Load Placement – Design Equation
Case Load Configuration Moments (kips-ft) and Loading and limitations
shears (kips) (x and l in feet)

32 32 Truck loading
8 ª § x · 42 º P = 16 kips
Px «4.5¨1  ¸
l ¹ l »¼
M ( x) MA t MB for:
A ¬ © l > 28
ª § x · 42 º x d l/3
V ( x) P «4.5¨1  ¸  » x + 28 d l
x ¬ © l¹ l ¼ VA > VB for any x

32 32 ª § x · 21 7 º Truck loading
8 M ( x) Px «4.5¨1  ¸   » P = 16 kips
B ¬ © l¹ l x¼ MB t MA for:
l > 28
ª x 21º
V ( x) P «4  4.5  » x > l/3
¬ l l ¼ 14 d x d l/2
x

§ x 2·
25 25 M ( x) 50 x¨1   ¸
© l l¹ Tandem loading
C
§ x 2· is more severe than truck
V ( x) 50¨1   ¸ loading for l d 37 ft
© l l¹
x

0.64 k/ft (l  x)
M ( x) 0.64 x
2
D Lane loading
§l ·
V ( x) 0.64¨  x ¸
x ©2 ¹
Live Load Placement – Design Equation
‡ If we combine the truck/tandem load with uniform load, we can get the
following equations for maximum moment in spans
Live Load Placement - Longitudinal
‡ Methods of finding maximum moment and shear in span
„ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous spans
„ Design Equation – Simple span only
„ Design Chart – Simple span only
Live Load Placement – Design Chart
Bending Moment in Simple Span
for AASHTO HL-93 Loading
for a fully loaded lane
Moment in kips-ft
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
1 kips-ft = 1.356 kN-m
Live Load Placement – Design Chart
Shear in Simple Span
for AASHTO HL-93 Loading
for a fully loaded lane
Shear in kips
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
Live Load Placement – Design Chart

Design Chart for Negative Moment due to Live Load Combination 3

at Interior Support of Continuous Beams with Equal Spans
For one lane loading
IM is included
Pedestrian Live Load: PL
‡ Use when has sidewalk wider
than 60 cm
‡ Considered simultaneously with
truck LL

‡ Pedestrian only: 3.6 kN/m2

‡ Pedestrian and/or Bicycle: 4.1
kN/m2

‡ No IM factor (Neglect dynamic

effect of pedestrians)
 Analysis Strategy for LL

Place them Moment/ Shear

Various to get Consider Distribute from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each girder design of girders
span

Dynamic
Allowance Factor
(IM)
Dynamic Load Allowance: IM
‡ Sources of Dynamic Effects
„ Hammering effect when wheels hit the discontinuities on the road surface
such as joints, cracks, and potholes
„ Dynamic response of the bridge due to vibrations induced by traffic
‡ Actual calculation of dynamic effects is very difficult and involves a lot of
unknowns
‡ To make life simpler, we account for the dynamic effect of moving vehicles
by multiplying the static effect with a factor

Dynamic Load
Allowance Factor
Effect due to Effect due to
Static Load Dynamic Load
IM

‡ This IM factor in the code was obtained from field measurements

Dynamic Load Allowance: IM
Dynamic Load Allowance: IM
‡ Add dynamic effect to the following loads:
„ Design Truck
„ Design Tandem
‡ But NOT to these loads:
„ Pedestrian Load
„ Design Lane Load

Table 3.6.2.1-1 (modified)

Component IM
Deck Joint 75%
All limit states
All other components above ground
Fatigue/ Fracture Limit States 15%
All Other Limit States 33%

Foundation components below ground 0%

* Reduce the above values by 50% for wood bridges

 Analysis Strategy for LL

Place them Moment/ Shear

Various to get Consider Distribute from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each design of girders
span girder

Multiple Presence of LL
Distribution Factors
Multiple Presence of LL

‡ We’ve considered the effect of load placement in ONE lane

‡ But bridges has more than one lane
‡ It’s almost impossible to have maximum load effect on ALL lanes at the same time
‡ The more lanes you have, the lesser chance that all will be loaded to maximum at
the same time
Multiple Presence of LL
‡ We take care of this by using
Multiple Presence Factor
‡ 1.0 for two lanes and less for 3 or
Number of Multiple more lanes
Loaded Lane Presence Factor ‡ This is already included
“m” (indirectly) into the GDF Tables
in AASHTO code so we do not
1 1.20 need to multiply this again
‡ Use this only when GDF is
2 1.00 determined from other analysis
(such as computer model or
3 0.85
FEM)
>3 0.65
Distribution of LL to Girders
‡ A bridge usually have more than one girder so the question arise on how
to distribute the lane load to the girders

‡ Two main methods

„ Using AASHTO’s table: for typical design, get an approximate
(conservative) value
‡ No need to consider multiple presence factor
„ Refined analysis by using finite element method
‡ Need to consider multiple presence factor
AASHTO Girder Distribution Factor
‡ DFs are different for different kinds of superstructure system
‡ DFs are different for interior and exterior beam

roadway width

Exterior Exterior
Interior

‡ DFs are available for one design lane and two or more design lanes (the
larger one controls)
‡ Must make sure that the bridge is within the range of applicability of the
equation
AASHTO Girder Distribution Factor
‡ Factors affecting the distribution factor includes:
„ Span Length (L)
„ Girder Spacing (S)
„ Modulus of elasticity of beam and deck
„ Moment of inertia and Torsional inertia of the section
„ Slab Thickness (ts)
„ Width (b), Depth (d), and Area of beam (A)
„ Number of design lanes (NL)
„ Number of girders (Nb)
„ Width of bridge (W)
DF
‡ For AASHTO method
first we must identify
the type of
superstructure
(support beam & deck
types)
DF
‡ Types
(Continued)
DFM
‡ Distribution factor for
moment in Interior
Beams
DFM
‡ Distribution factor for
moment in Interior
Beams (continued)
DFM
‡ Distribution factor for
moment in Exterior
Beams
DFV
‡ Distribution factor for
shear in Interior Beams
DFV
‡ Distribution factor for
shear in Exterior Beams
GDF – Finite Element Analysis

Bridge Model
GDF – Finite Element Analysis

1 2

Load distribution in model

GDF – Finite Element Analysis
(a)

(b)

(c)

Boundary Conditions
 Moment and Shear in Typical Girder
‡ At any section, if not using AASHTO’s GDF
„ MLL+IM = DFM×MLL+IM,Lane×m
„ VLL+IM = DFV×VLL+IM,Lane×m
‡ At any section, if using AASHTO’s GDF
„ MLL+IM = DFM×MLL+IM,Lane
„ VLL+IM = DFV×VLL+IM,Lane

Live
Place them Increase the Moment/ Shear
Loads
to get static load by from Live Load
(Truck, Multiply
maximum IM to account to be used in the
Tandem by DF
static for dynamic design of girders
and Lane
effects effects
Loads)
Outline
‡ Loads on Bridges ‡ Design Lane
‡ Typical Loads ‡ AASHTO HL93 Loads
ƒ Truck
„ Dead Load
ƒ Tandem
„ Live Load
ƒ Uniform Load
‡ Live Load of Vehicle
‡ LL Combinations
‡ Pedestrian Load
‡ LL Placement
‡ Dynamic Load Allowance
ƒ Influence Line
‡ Other Loads ƒ Design Equation
„ Fatigue ƒ Design Charts
„ Wind ‡ Multiple Presence
„ Earthquake ‡ Distribution to Girders
„ …
‡ Load and Resistance Factor
Design
Other Loads
Fatigue
Wind
Earthquake
Fatigue Load
‡ Fatigue load depends on two factors
„ Magnitude of Load:
use design truck with 9m between 145 kN axles placed on the bridge to
produce maximum effect PLUS IM

„ Frequency of Occurrence:
Have to estimate ADTTSL = average daily truck traffic in a single lane
Fatigue Load
ADT
Average Daily Traffic Table C3.6.1.4.2-1
(All Vehicles/ 1 Direction)
From Survey (and Class of Hwy % of Truck
extrapolate to future) Rural Interstate 0.20
Max ~ 20,000 vehicles/day
Urban Interstate 0.15
% of Truck Other Rural 0.15
in Traffic Other Urban 0.10

ADTT
Average Daily Truck Traffic Table 3.6.1.1.2-1
(Truck Only/ 1 Direction) Number of Lanes p
Available to Trucks
Fraction of Truck Traffic in a
Single Lane (p) 1 1.00
2 0.85
ADTTSL
3 or more 0.80
Average Daily Truck Traffic
(Truck Only/ 1 Lane)
Wind Load
‡ Horizontal loads
‡ There are two types of wind loads on the structure

„ WS = wind load on structure

Wind pressure on the structure itself

„ WL = wind on vehicles on bridge

Wind pressure on the vehicles on the bridge, which the load is
transferred to the bridge superstructure
Wind Load
‡ For small and low bridges, wind load typically do not control the design

‡ For longer span bridge over river/sea, wind load on the structure is very
important

„ Need to consider the aerodynamic effect of the wind on the structure

(turbulence/ Æ wind tunnel tests

„ Need to consider the dynamic effect of flexible long-span bridge under

the wind Æ dynamic analysis
Wind Load

Pont de Normandie (1995)

France
856 m span
Wind Load
‡ For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above low ground or
water level, the design wind velocity, VDZ, should be adjusted
according to:

§ V10 · § Z ·
VDZ 2.5V0 ¨ ¸ ln ¨ ¸
where:
© VB ¹ © Z 0 ¹
VDZ = design wind velocity at design elevation, Z (km/h)
V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level (km/h)
(needs to be measured at the site or assume as equal to 160 km/h)
VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h at 10 m
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated > 10 m
V0 = friction velocity depends on terrains
Z0 = friction length of upstream fetch depends on terrain
Wind Load
‡ After having the wind velocity, we can calculate the pressure on the
structure (in MPa)

2
§ VDZ · VDZ 2
PD PB ¨ ¸ PB
© VB ¹ 25, 600
Structural component Windward Leeward load,
load, MPa MPa
Trusses, columns and arches 0.0024 0.0012
Beams 0.0024 NA
Large flat surfaces 0.0019 NA

‡ We must also consider different angles of winds

Wind Load

‡ Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Tacoma, Washington, USA)

„ The bridge collapsed in 1940 shortly after completion under wind speed lower
than the design wind speed but at a frequency near the natural frequency of
the bridge
„ The “resonance” effect was not considered at the time
Earthquake Load: EQ
‡ Horizontal load

‡ The magnitude of earthquake is characterized by return period

„ Large return period (e.g. 500 years) Æ strong earthquake

„ Small return period Æ (e.g. 50 years) Æ minor earthquake

‡ For large earthquakes (rarely occur), the bridge structure is allowed to

suffer significant structural damage but must not collapse

‡ For small earthquakes (more likely to occur), the bridge should still be in
the elastic range (no structural damage)
Earthquake Load: EQ
‡ Analysis Methods to determine EQ
„ Nonlinear Dynamic Method (most complex)
„ Linear Dynamic Method (still complex)
„ Nonlinear Static Method (many programs can do it)
„ Linear Static Method (we’re familiar with this)
Earthquake Load: EQ
‡ To do the Nonlinear Dynamic Method you probably have to learn
„ Structural Dynamics – to do the dynamic part
„ Advanced Design of RC/ PC/ Steel – to properly model the nonlinear
behavior of materials
„ Earthquake Design – to understand the earthquake behaviors and the
design requirements
„ Numerical Methods and/or Finite Elements – to be able to solve the
problems correctly

Too Complex !!!

only use for very important
structures
Earthquake Load: EQ
‡ The January 17, 1995 Kobe
earthquake had its epicenter right
between the two towers of the
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
‡ The earthquake has the
magnitude of 7.2 on Richter scale
‡ The uncompleted bridge did not
have any structural damages
‡ The original planned length was
1990 meters for the main span,
but the seismic event moved the
towers apart by almost a meter!
Earthquake Load: EQ
AASHTO LRFD Designs
Introduction
Design Criteria
Load Multiplier
Load Factor and Load Combinations
Resistance Factors
Outline
‡ Loads on Bridges ‡ Design Lane
‡ Typical Loads ‡ AASHTO HL93 Loads
ƒ Truck
„ Dead Load
ƒ Tandem
„ Live Load
ƒ Uniform Load
‡ Live Load of Vehicle
‡ LL Combinations
‡ Pedestrian Load
‡ LL Placement
‡ Dynamic Load Allowance
ƒ Influence Line
‡ Other Loads ƒ Design Equation
„ Fatigue ƒ Design Charts
„ Wind ‡ Multiple Presence
„ Earthquake ‡ Distribution to Girders
„ …
‡ Load and Resistance Factor
Design
Historical Development
‡ The first US standard for bridges in 1931 (AASHO), the 17th edition of
AASHTO Specifications in 2002
‡ Working stress design (WSD), based on allowable stresses
‡ In 1975-79 work on the new code, Ontario Ministry of Transportation,
the 1st edition of the OHBDC in 1979
‡ In 1986-87 feasibility study initiated by a group of bridge engineers
‡ Work on the new code1988-93
‡ 1st edition of AASHTO LRFD Code in 1994, the 2nd in 1998, 3rd in 2004
– as an alternative document
‡ By 2007, only AASHTO LRFD in the USA
Major Changes in LRFD Codes
‡ Introduction of a new philosophy of safety
‡ Identification of four limit states (strength, service, fatigue, extreme event)
‡ Development of new load models (including new live load)
‡ Development of new load and resistance factors
‡ Revised techniques for the analysis and load distribution
‡ Combined presentation of plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete;
shear design based on strut and tie model
‡ Introduction of limit state-based provisions for foundation design and soil
mechanics
‡ Expanded coverage on hydraulics and scour
‡ Changes to the earthquake provisions
‡ Inclusion of FHWA Spec for ship collision
‡ Coverage of bridge rails based on crash testing
‡ Introduction of isotropic deck design process
‡ Development of parallel commentary
Design Criteria
‡ AASHTO LRFD Specifications
‡ For each limit state:

Factored Load ” Factored Resistance

‡ Load and resistance factors serve as partial safety factors

‡ They are determined using the code calibration procedure
Design Criteria

LOAD Mean Mean RESISTANCE

Load Resistance
Nominal
Load Nominal
Resistance

Factored FAILURE Factored

Load Resistance
Design Criteria
‡ General format in AASHTO LRFD Code:

™ ȘȖiQi ” ĭRn

Load Multiplier
Nominal Resistance
Load Factor
Resistance Factor
Nominal Load Effect

K= KIKDKR
Load Multiplier

K= KI KD KR
Load Multiplier
‡ KI = Importance factor
‡ The owner may declare a bridge or any structural component and
connection thereof to be of operational importance.
‡ For strength and extreme event limit states
„ 1.05 for bridge considered of operational importance e.g. the only bridge
crossing the river
„ 1.00 for typical bridges
„ 0.95 for bridge considered nonimportant
‡ For all other limit states
„ 1.00 for all bridges
Load Multiplier
‡ KD = Ductility factor (Brittle v.s. Ductile failure)
‡ The structural system shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the
strength and extreme event limit states before failure.
‡ For strength limit states
„ 1.05 for nonductile components & connection which may fail in a brittle
manner
„ 1.00 for conventional designs
„ 0.95 for components with enhanced ductility e.g. has additional stirrups for
shear reinforcements
‡ For all other limit states
„ 1.00
Load Multiplier
‡ KR = Redundant factor
‡ Multiple load path and continuous structures should be used. Main
elements whose failure is expected to cause the collapse of the bridge
shall be designated as failure-critical (nonredundant)
‡ For strength limit states
„ 1.05 for nonredundant members e.g. a simple span bridges
„ 1.00 for conventional level of redundancy
„ 0.95 for exceptional level of redundancy e.g. multi-girder continuous beam
bridge
‡ For all other limit states
„ 1.00
 Load Factor &
Load Combinations

Ȗi
Loads & Probabilities
‡ How do we use all the loads for the structural analysis?
„ Add all the mean value of loads together?
‡ No, because we must consider the chance that the load may be larger or
smaller than calculated.
„ Add all the extreme value of loads together?
‡ No, because then the bridge must have to resist an enormous load and
that would make it really expensive!
‡ The chance that the maximum value of one load occurring at the same
time as the maximum value of another load is very small.
„ We need to consider several cases where each case we have one load
at its maximum value expected while other loads are around their
mean values
Loads & Probabilities
‡ Load factors are
determined so that, for
each factored load, the
probability of being
exceeded is about the
same for all load
components.
Limit States
There are 4 types of “limit states”
‡ Ultimate limit states – involving the strength and stability of the structure,
both local and global
„ Strength I, II, III, IV
‡ Extreme Event limit states - relates to the structural survival of a bridge
during a major earthquake, flood, or collision
„ Extreme Event I, II
‡ Serviceability limit states – involving the usability of the structure including
stress, deformation, and crack widths
„ Service I, II, III
‡ Fatigue limit state - relates to restrictions on stress range to prevent crack
growth as a result of repetitive loads during the design life of the bridge
„ Fatigue
‡ All limit states are equally important (AASHTO LRFD 1.3.2.1)
Permanent Loads
‡ DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
‡ DW = dead load of wearing surface and utilities
‡ EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the
construction process
‡ DD = downdrag
‡ EH = horizontal earth pressure load
‡ ES = earth surcharge load
‡ EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
Transient Loads
‡ LL = vehicular live load
‡ IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
‡ PL = pedestrian live load
‡ LS = live load surcharge
‡ BR = vehicular braking force
‡ CE = vehicular centrifugal force
‡ CT = vehicular collision force
‡ CV = vessel collision force
‡ EQ = earthquake
Transient Loads
‡ CR = creep
‡ SH = shrinkage
‡ FR = friction
‡ TG = temperature gradient
‡ TU = uniform temperature
‡ WA = water load and stream pressure
‡ IC = ice load
‡ WL = wind on live load
‡ WS = wind load on structure
‡ SE = settlement
Load Combinations
Load Combinations
Load Combinations
‡ STRENGTH I: Basic load combination relating to the normal use of bridge.
Maximum combination is used when LL produces the same effect as DC.
Minimum combination is used when LL produces opposite effect to DC.
‡ STRENGTH II: load combination for special vehicles specified by owner
‡ STRENGTH III: load combination where the bridge is subjected to high
wind (> 90 km/h) and traffic is prevented
‡ STRENGTH IV: load combination for long span bridges (>67 m span)
which has large ratio of DC to LL
‡ STRENGTH V: load combination where bridge and traffic on the bridge is
subjected to wind velocity of 90 km/h
Load Combinations
‡ EXTREME EVENT I: load combination for structural survival under major
earthquake
‡ EXTREME EVENT II: load combination for structural survival under
combination of events such as flood and vessel collision

‡ SERVICE I: load combination for normal operation of the bridge and for
checking compression in prestressed concrete
‡ SERVICE II: load combination for steel bridges to control yielding
‡ SERVICE III: load combination relating to tension in prestressed concrete
during service

‡ FATIGUE: load combination for fatigue and fracture due to repetitive LL

and IM
Load Combinations
‡ Example of combinations:
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
„ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
„ 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.35(LL+IM) + 0.4(WS+WL) (Strength V)
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
„ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)
„ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)
Load Combinations
‡ For slabs and girders designs, we normally have only DC, DW,
and (LL+IM)
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)
„ 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)

„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.00(LL+IM) (Service I)

„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.30(LL+IM) (Service II, Steel)
„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 0.80(LL+IM) (Service III, Prestressed)
Resistance Factors

ĭ
Resistance and Probabilities
‡ Resistance factor is
determined so that the
reliability index, ȕ, is
close to the target
value, ȕT (about 3.5)
Resistance Factors
‡ Resistance factors are different for different types of action (moment or
shear, for example) and for different types of materials (steel or
concrete). They are specified under each section of materials.

Concrete Structures

Types ĭ
Flexure and Tension
in Reinforced Concrete 0.90
in Prestressed Concrete 1.00
Shear in Normal Weight Concrete 0.90
Axial Compression 0.75
Bearing on Concrete 0.70
Resistance Factors

Steel Structures

Types ĭ
Flexure 1.00
Shear 1.00
Axial Compression (steel or composite) 0.90
Block shear 0.80
Tension
Yielding limit state 0.95
Fracture limit state 0.80
Design Equation

Case Load Configuration Moments (kips-ft) and Loading and limitations

shears (kips) (x and l in feet)

32 32 Truck loading
8 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 42 ⎤ P = 16 kips
M ( x) = Px ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎥ MA ≥ MB for:
A ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l ⎦
l > 28
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 42 ⎤ x ≤ l/3
V ( x) = P ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎥ x + 28 ≤ l
x ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l ⎦ VA > VB for any x

32 32 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 21 7 ⎤ Truck loading
8 M ( x) = Px ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − − ⎥ P = 16 kips
B ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l x⎦ MB ≥ MA for:
l > 28
⎡ x 21⎤
V ( x ) = P ⎢ 4 − 4 .5 − ⎥ x > l/3
⎣ l l ⎦ 14 ≤ x ≤ l/2
x

⎛ x 2⎞
25 25 M ( x) = 50 x⎜1 − − ⎟
⎝ l l⎠ Tandem loading
C
⎛ x 2⎞ is more severe than truck
V ( x) = 50⎜1 − − ⎟ loading for l ≤ 37 ft
⎝ l l⎠
x

0.64 k/ft (l − x)
M ( x) = 0.64 x
2
D Lane loading
⎛l ⎞
V ( x) = 0.64⎜ − x ⎟
x ⎝ 2 ⎠
Bending Moment in Simple Span for AASHTO HL-93 Loading for a fully loaded lane
Moment in kips-ft
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
1 kips-ft = 1.356 kN-m
Shear in Simple Span for AASHTO HL-93 Loading for a fully loaded lane
Shear in kips
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
Design Chart for Negative Moment due to Live Load Combination 3 at Interior Support of Continuous Beams with Equal Spans
For one lane loading
IM is included