J-Jireh School, Inc.

1
Suterville, Zamboanga City HO
21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World
2nd QUARTER

Literary Genres, Traditions, and Forms from Different National Literatures and
Cultures

Name: ____________________________Grade/ Section:

_______________________Date:__________

1. Asian Literature
Asian literature is a vast and diverse collection, encompassing works from China, Japan, India, Korea,
Southeast Asia, and more. These works often reflect cultural values such as community, spirituality, and a deep
connection to nature.
Genres and Forms:
 Poetry: Haiku, Tanka (Japan), Ghazal (Persia/India), Quatrains.
 Prose: Fables (e.g., Panchatantra), Myths (e.g., Ramayana, Mahabharata).
 Drama: Noh and Kabuki (Japan), Peking Opera (China), Sanskrit Drama (India).
 Themes: Family honor, loyalty, duty, karma, balance in nature.

2. Anglo-American Literature
This tradition spans the literature of English-speaking countries, including the U.S., the U.K., Canada, and
Australia. It reflects the historical and cultural development of these nations and the colonial legacy.
Genres and Forms:
 Poetry: Sonnet, Free Verse, Ballads, Epic Poetry.
 Prose: Novels (e.g., Gothic novels, Realism), Short Stories.
 Drama: Shakespearean drama (tragedy, comedy), Modern drama.
 Themes: Individualism, freedom, identity, society vs. the individual.

3. European Literature
European literature, deeply rooted in classical traditions, continues to influence Western literary forms.
Countries like France, Germany, Italy, and Russia have unique contributions.
Genres and Forms:
 Poetry: Epic (Homer’s Iliad), Romantic Poetry (e.g., Goethe, Baudelaire).
 Prose: Novels (e.g., Realism, Naturalism), Fairy tales, Philosophical literature.
 Drama: Tragedy (Greek and Roman), Comedy of Manners (French), Absurdist Drama.
 Themes: Power, authority, humanism, existentialism, love, tragedy.

4. Latin American Literature

Latin American literature reflects a rich tapestry of pre-colonial traditions, European influence, and a sense of
cultural identity tied to social justice and political turmoil.
Genres and Forms:
 Poetry: Epic poetry (e.g., Popol Vuh), Modernismo, Magic Realism.
 Prose: Novels (e.g., Magical Realism by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Post-Boom literature).
 Drama: Latin American theater blending social commentary with traditional forms.
 Themes: Identity, politics, magic realism, colonialism, revolution.

5. African Literature
African literature is informed by a mixture of oral traditions, colonial history, and post-colonial identity. Its oral
storytelling heritage remains strong, influencing written forms.
Genres and Forms:
 Poetry: Oral Poetry (praise songs, epics), Negritude poetry.
 Prose: Folklore, Post-colonial novels, African Fables, Diasporic literature.
 Drama: Traditional African drama, postcolonial theater.
 Themes: Community, struggle, resistance, identity, postcolonialism, tradition vs. modernity.

Key Takeaways:
 Each culture contributes uniquely to the global tapestry of literary forms and traditions.
 Literary genres reflect the histories, values, and philosophies of the regions they come from.
 Understanding the cultural context enriches the interpretation of these literary works.
 Asian Literature
The story of Mitrabheda (The Loss of Friends) from the Panchatantra centers around a lion
named Pingalaka and a bull named Sanjeevaka. Here's the full tale:

The Lion and the Bull

Once upon a time, in a dense forest, a powerful lion named Pingalaka ruled as the
king of the jungle. One day, while Pingalaka was resting by a river, he heard a loud,
unfamiliar bellowing sound coming from the nearby woods. Startled and frightened, the
lion hesitated to investigate, fearing it might be some unknown dangerous beast.
Two jackals, Karataka and Damanaka, were nearby and noticed the lion's unease.
Sensing an opportunity, Damanaka, the more cunning of the two, approached the lion to
offer his services. Although Damanaka had fallen out of favor with the lion, he saw this
as a chance to regain the lion's trust.
Damanaka said, "O mighty king, I see that you are troubled. I can help you discover the
source of this strange sound. Please allow me to investigate."
The lion agreed, and Damanaka set off to find out what was making the noise. Soon, he
came across Sanjeevaka, a bull who had wandered into the forest after being injured and
abandoned by his owner. Over time, Sanjeevaka had regained his strength and lived
peacefully in the forest, grazing and bellowing loudly.
Damanaka, seeing that the bull posed no threat, devised a plan. He returned to the lion
and said, "O king, the creature making that fearsome noise is a mighty bull named
Sanjeevaka. However, he is harmless and is willing to serve you if you allow him to stay
in the forest."
The lion, trusting Damanaka’s advice, approached Sanjeevaka. Soon, the lion and the
bull became close friends. Sanjeevaka entertained the lion with stories and intelligent
conversations, which the lion greatly appreciated. Over time, Sanjeevaka became one of
the lion’s most trusted companions, and the two spent much time together.
However, Damanaka and Karataka, who had once been the lion's confidants, became
jealous of Sanjeevaka’s influence. They feared that their position in the court would be
weakened if the lion continued to favor the bull. To regain their status, they decided to
sow discord between the lion and the bull.
Damanaka approached the lion privately and said, "O king, I must warn you that
Sanjeevaka is plotting against you. He believes he is stronger and more intelligent than
you and intends to challenge your rule."
The lion, initially doubtful, began to grow suspicious of Sanjeevaka. Damanaka’s words
played on his mind, and his once strong bond with the bull began to crumble.
At the same time, Damanaka visited Sanjeevaka and whispered lies in his ear. He told
the bull, "The lion no longer trusts you, and he plans to attack you. You should prepare to
defend yourself."
Tension built between the lion and the bull as both began to suspect treachery. One day,
driven by fear and anger, Pingalaka confronted Sanjeevaka. The two former friends,
blinded by their misunderstandings, engaged in a fierce battle. Despite Sanjeevaka’s
bravery, he was no match for the lion’s strength, and the bull was killed.
After the battle, Pingalaka realized the tragic mistake he had made. The bond of
friendship he had once shared with Sanjeevaka was destroyed, all because of the
deceitful words of Damanaka and Karataka.
 Anglo-American Literature
Beowulf: The Story
Setting: The poem is set in Scandinavia, specifically in the kingdoms of the Danes and
the Geats (modern-day Sweden).
Plot Summary:
1. The Grendel Threat: The story begins in Denmark, where King Hrothgar's great
hall, Heorot, is under attack by a monstrous creature named Grendel. Grendel, a
descendant of Cain, terrorizes Hrothgar's men, killing and devouring them nightly.
Hrothgar, unable to protect his people, is in despair.

2. Beowulf's Arrival: News of Hrothgar's plight reaches Beowulf, a young warrior

and the nephew of King Hygelac of the Geats. Eager to prove his strength and
honor, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a group of warriors to help Hrothgar defeat
Grendel.

3. The Battle with Grendel: Upon arriving, Beowulf is warmly welcomed by

Hrothgar. That night, he decides to fight Grendel without weapons, as Grendel
fights bare-handed. When Grendel attacks Heorot, Beowulf seizes the monster’s
arm and engages in a fierce struggle. Beowulf ultimately tears off Grendel's arm,
mortally wounding him. Grendel flees to his lair in the marshes, where he dies.

4. Celebration and Grendel's Mother: The Danes celebrate Beowulf’s victory with
a grand feast, praising him as a hero. However, their joy is short-lived, as Grendel’s
mother seeks revenge for her son’s death. She attacks Heorot, killing one of
Hrothgar’s closest advisors.

5. The Battle with Grendel’s Mother: Hrothgar leads Beowulf to Grendel's

mother’s underwater lair. Beowulf dons armor and descends into the murky waters
to confront her. In a fierce battle, Beowulf struggles but ultimately discovers a
magical sword, Hrunting, hanging on the wall of the lair. With this sword, he
beheads Grendel’s mother.

6. Returning to the Surface: After defeating her, Beowulf also finds Grendel’s
lifeless body and decapitates it, taking the head back to Heorot as a trophy. The
Danes celebrate his bravery and honor him with gifts.

7. Beowulf’s Return to Geatland: After spending time in Denmark, Beowulf

returns to Geatland, where he is hailed as a hero. He presents the treasures he
received from Hrothgar to his king, Hygelac, and recounts his adventures.

8. Beowulf as King: Years later, after Hygelac’s death, Beowulf becomes king of the
Geats. His reign is marked by peace and prosperity for fifty years. However, the
tranquility is disrupted when a dragon, angered by a thief stealing a cup from its
hoard, begins to terrorize the Geats.

9. The Final Battle: Beowulf, now an old man, decides to confront the dragon to
protect his people. Accompanied by a few loyal warriors, he faces the dragon but is
wounded in the battle. Many warriors flee in fear, but a young warrior named
Wiglaf stays to help Beowulf. Together, they manage to kill the dragon, but
Beowulf is mortally wounded in the fight.

10. Beowulf’s Death and Legacy: Before dying, Beowulf entrusts Wiglaf with
his kingdom and asks for a barrow (tomb) to be built in his honor. After his death,
the Geats mourn their beloved king and honor him with a grand burial, ensuring
his legacy as a great hero.
 European Literature
Hamlet: The Complete Story
Act 1: The Ghost's Appearance
The play begins on the battlements of Elsinore Castle in Denmark. Sentinels are on
watch and are joined by Horatio, a friend of Prince Hamlet. They see a ghost resembling
the late King Hamlet, and they decide to tell Prince Hamlet about it.
When Hamlet arrives, they inform him of the ghost. After some initial skepticism, Hamlet
agrees to follow the ghost. The ghost reveals that he is the spirit of Hamlet's father and
tells Hamlet that he was murdered by his brother, Claudius, who now wears the crown
and has married Queen Gertrude, Hamlet’s mother. The ghost demands that Hamlet
avenge his murder.

Act 2: Hamlet's Feigned Madness

Hamlet is deeply troubled by the ghost's revelation and begins to act strangely, leading
others to believe he has gone mad. Claudius, the new king, and Polonius, the Lord
Chamberlain, suspect that Hamlet's madness is due to his love for Ophelia, Polonius's
daughter. They decide to spy on Hamlet to uncover the truth.
Polonius sends his servant, Reynaldo, to Paris to spy on Laertes, Ophelia's brother, while
Claudius and Gertrude set up a meeting with Hamlet and Ophelia. When they meet,
Hamlet behaves erratically, confusing Ophelia and raising suspicion about his mental
state.

Act 3: The Play and Confrontation

To determine Claudius's guilt, Hamlet stages a play that reenacts the murder of his
father, calling it The Mousetrap. He invites Claudius and Gertrude to watch. During the
play, Claudius becomes visibly upset and storms out, confirming his guilt to Hamlet.
After the play, Hamlet confronts his mother in her chamber. He expresses his disgust at
her hasty marriage to Claudius. During this confrontation, Hamlet accidentally kills
Polonius, who is hiding behind a tapestry. Hamlet realizes he has committed murder and
is filled with remorse.

Act 4: Consequences and Madness

Claudius, fearing for his safety, sends Hamlet to England, secretly instructing that he be
killed upon arrival. Ophelia, devastated by her father's death and Hamlet’s rejection,
descends into madness and eventually drowns, presumably by suicide. Laertes returns
from France, enraged by his father's death and Ophelia’s madness. Claudius manipulates
Laertes into seeking revenge against Hamlet.
Back in Denmark, Hamlet encounters pirates during his journey to England and returns
to Elsinore. He learns of Ophelia's death and is heartbroken.

Act 5: The Duel and Tragedy

In the final act, Laertes and Claudius plot to kill Hamlet. They arrange a duel, where
Laertes will use a poisoned sword. Claudius also prepares a poisoned cup of wine for
Hamlet.
During the duel, Laertes wounds Hamlet with the poisoned sword. In the chaos, Queen
Gertrude accidentally drinks the poisoned wine and dies. Laertes, mortally wounded,
reveals Claudius’s plot. In his final moments, Hamlet avenges his mother’s death by
killing Claudius.
As Hamlet lies dying from his own wound, he names Fortinbras, the Prince of Norway, as
his successor. Fortinbras arrives just as Hamlet dies, and he orders a military funeral for
the fallen prince, honoring him despite the tragic events.
 Latin American Literature
One Hundred Years of Solitude
by Gabriel García Márquez

The tale begins with José Arcadio Buendía, a visionary and ambitious man, who,
along with his wife, Úrsula Iguarán, leaves their hometown in search of a new life. They
establish the town of Macondo, a magical and isolated place filled with beauty and
tranquility. José Arcadio is deeply interested in science and alchemy, dreaming of
discovering gold and eternal life. He becomes obsessed with his pursuits, often losing
touch with reality.

The Early Buendía Family

As they settle into their new life, José Arcadio and Úrsula have two children: José
Arcadio (named after his father) and Aureliano. José Arcadio, the elder son, is strong
and adventurous. He falls in love with a gypsy girl named Rebeca, who arrives at
Macondo with her own peculiar habits, including a hunger for earth and a connection to
the past.
Aureliano, in contrast, is introspective and thoughtful. He often feels like an outsider in
his own family. José Arcadio becomes embroiled in a relationship with Rebeca, leading to
complications that echo the themes of forbidden love and familial bonds.

Civil War and Revolution

As the years pass, Macondo faces the outside world. The arrival of gypsies brings new
ideas and inventions, including ice and magnets, which captivate the townspeople. José
Arcadio’s obsession with alchemy and invention continues, leading to his eventual
mental decline.

Aureliano Buendía grows up to become a revolutionary leader. The novel captures his
participation in civil wars and his struggles with identity and purpose, reflecting the
political turmoil of Latin America. His leadership often isolates him further from his
family.

The Rise and Fall of Macondo

Macondo’s prosperity begins to wane as external influences take hold. The arrival of a
banana company introduces wealth but also exploitation. Laborers are mistreated,
leading to a massive strike for better conditions. When the company responds with
violence, a brutal massacre occurs, marking the beginning of Macondo's decline.
Amidst the chaos, Aureliano II (Aureliano’s son) marries Fernanda del Carpio, a
woman of noble lineage who struggles to fit into the town's vibrant culture. Their
marriage is fraught with tension and ultimately leads to further disconnection within the
family.

Tragedy and Solitude

The narrative delves into the lives of various family members, each grappling with their
solitude. Characters like Amaranta, who vows never to marry, and Remedios the
Beauty, who inexplicably ascends to heaven while hanging laundry, illustrate the blend
of the ordinary and the extraordinary that defines Macondo.
As the Buendía family faces tragedies—deaths, unfulfilled desires, and betrayals—the
town itself begins to decay. Generations struggle under the weight of their family legacy,
and the themes of incest and repetition permeate their lives.

The Last Generation

The final generations of the Buendía family are marked by despair and decline.
Aureliano Babilonia, the last surviving member, discovers ancient parchments written
by the gypsy Melquíades, which chronicle the family’s history. As he reads, he realizes
that the events of their lives are predestined, echoing the patterns of the past.
In a heartbreaking revelation, Aureliano learns that the family is doomed to repeat its
mistakes, leading to inevitable extinction. The novel concludes with the last members of
the Buendía family facing annihilation, symbolizing the collapse of Macondo.

The End of an Era

As Macondo disappears into memory, Aureliano Babilonia understands the cyclical
nature of time and history. The story ends with the somber acknowledgment that the
Buendía family’s legacy is forever intertwined with solitude, tragedy, and the unchanging
cycle of history.

African Literature
The Epic of Sundiata: The Story Prologue

In the ancient kingdom of Mali, a prophecy foretells the birth of a great leader who will
unite the tribes and establish a powerful empire. This leader is destined to come from
the lineage of Sogolon Kedjou, a woman of great strength and resilience.
The Birth of Sundiata
Sogolon, initially ridiculed for her physical appearance, marries Maghan Kon Fatta, the
king of Mali. After a long wait for a child, she gives birth to Sundiata Keita, who is born
unable to walk. The king’s first wife, Nangnang, gives birth to a strong son, Dankaran
Toumani, who grows up to be proud and arrogant.
Despite his early disability, Sundiata’s mother instills in him the values of perseverance
and strength. As he grows, Sundiata learns to walk, defying the expectations of those
around him. This miraculous recovery marks the beginning of his journey toward
greatness.
Exile and Hardship
After the death of King Maghan, Dankaran Toumani ascends to the throne. Fearing
Sundiata’s potential, he attempts to eliminate him and his mother. Sundiata and Sogolon
are forced into exile, traveling through various lands and enduring hardships.
During his exile, Sundiata befriends several key figures, including Balla Fasseke, a griot
who becomes his loyal advisor. He also encounters warriors and skilled fighters who
pledge their loyalty to him.
The Rise of a Hero
In exile, Sundiata matures into a strong and charismatic leader. He learns the arts of war
and diplomacy, gathering a following of loyal supporters. As he journeys, he encounters
various cultures and begins to understand the complexities of leadership.
Sundiata hears about the suffering of his people back in Mali under the oppressive rule of
Soumaoro Kante, the sorcerer king of Sosso, who wields great magical powers.
Recognizing his destiny, Sundiata decides to return to Mali and reclaim his rightful place
as the leader of his people.
The Return to Mali
With a band of loyal followers, Sundiata returns to Mali. He rallies the tribes and instills
hope among the people, promising to liberate them from Soumaoro’s tyranny. He
prepares for battle, drawing on his experiences and the strength of his allies.
In the decisive battle against Soumaoro, Sundiata confronts not only the sorcerer king
but also the spiritual forces that he commands. With the help of his warriors and the
blessings of his ancestors, Sundiata defeats Soumaoro in a fierce confrontation, breaking
his magical powers and liberating his people.
The Founding of the Mali Empire
With Soumaoro defeated, Sundiata becomes the ruler of Mali, fulfilling the prophecy. He
establishes a prosperous kingdom characterized by trade, justice, and unity among the
tribes. He promotes agriculture, arts, and commerce, fostering a sense of community
and identity among his people.
Sundiata is known for his wisdom and fairness. He implements laws that ensure justice
and equity for all citizens. His leadership is marked by a commitment to cultural values,
drawing from the traditions and heritage of the Malinke people.
Legacy and Conclusion
Sundiata’s reign ushers in a golden age for Mali, laying the foundation for one of the
greatest empires in West Africa. The epic concludes with reflections on his legacy,
emphasizing themes of unity, strength, and the enduring spirit of the Malinke people.
The narrative of the "Epic of Sundiata" illustrates the triumph of good over evil, the
importance of identity and heritage, and the significance of resilience in the face of
adversity. It serves as a vital cultural artifact, preserving the history and values of the
African people.