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CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

7 CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE

7.1 Capacitor the absolute permittivity of the dielectric material and

Capacitor is a device which can hold or store is the product of ε0 and εr.
electric charge. A capacitor is made of two  0  8.854 x 1012 F/m (7.2)
conductors such as parallel metal plates of cross
sectional area A separated from each other by
distance d. An insulator is placed between the 7.2 Charging a Capacitor
conductors or parallel metal plates. The symbol of a 7.2.1. The Charging Process
capacitor is presented in Fig. 7.1. It shows two Suppose the capacitor of Fig. 7.2 is at zero state.
parallel plates separated by an insulator. An old term It’s not charged. Suppose Switch Sw2 is open and
or name for capacitor is “condenser”. Two Switch Sw1 is closed at time t=0; the effective
concentric cylinders can also form a capacitor. portion of Fig 7.2 is shown in Fig. 7.3.

Fig. 7.1 Symbol of a Capacitor

There is a dielectric material separating the

parallel plates. A dielectric material is defined as an
insulator in which an electric field can be sustained
with a minimum dissipation of power [7]. In a Fig. 7.2 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor
dielectric material, there are no mobile electrons
necessary for electrical conduction. Examples of
dielectric materials include Vacuum, Air, Glass Wood,
Mica, Paper Nylon Mineral Oil, Rubber and Paraffin
wax.
Capacitance C is the ability of the capacitor to
store electric charge. Capacitance is measured in
farad F. The capacitance of a capacitor is directly
proportional to the cross-sectional area A of the
plates and is inversely proportional to the distance d
between the plates as expressed in Eqn. (7.1). d is the
same as the thickness of the dielectric material Fig. 7.3 Charging A capacitor
separating the two plates. Eqn. (7.1) is applicable to
parallel plates’ capacitor. For a capacitor the relationship between the
C ∝ A ; C   0 r A   A (7.1) instantaneous voltage and the instantaneous
d d d current is given by Eqn. (7.3). Instantaneous value is
ε0 is the permittivity of free space and εr is the value of a parameter at an instance of time (t).
relative permittivity of the dielectric material. For dvc
example, the relative permittivity of Vacuum, Air, ic  C (7.3)
dt
Epoxy, Nylon, Polyethylene, PVC and Teflon are 1, At time t equal to zero when switch Sw1 is closed,
1.006, 3.3, 4.1, 2.3, 3.7 and 2 respectively [3,8] vc is zero. This is the initial condition and it’s
Permittivity of free space is given by Eqn. (7.2). ε is restated in Eqn. (i).
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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

Initial condition, vc t  0   0 (i) vc (t )  E  Eet  (ix)

Switch Sw2 remains open. where   R1C (x)
KCL, ic  i1 (ii) τ is known as the time constant. The higher the
KVL, E  vr1  vc (iii) value of the time constant the lower is the rate at
vr1  i1 R1  ic R1 (iv) which vc increases, the lower is the rate of charging
the capacitor (the slower is the charging process).
dv Eqn. (ix) is the expression for the voltage across the
But ic  C c (v)
dt capacitor at time t. It’s termed zero state response.
Substitute for ic in Eqn. (iv). The response has two components. The first term on
dv the right hand side of Eqn. (ix) is the steady state
 vr1  R1C c response. This type of response endures as long as
dt
the input is in place. The second term on the right
Substitute for vr1 in Eqn. (iii).
hand side of Eqn. (ix) is the transient response.
dv Transient response decreases as time t increase and it
 E  R1C c  vc (vi)
dt varnishes as t assume large value.
Eqn. (vi) is a first order differential equation. For Substitute vc in Eqn. (v) and differentiate to get ic as
this reason, a circuit containing a capacitor or E t R1C
capacitors and resistors is referred to as first order  ic (t )  e (xi)
circuit. A resistive circuit containing only resistors is R1
a zero order circuit; because the voltage and current i1 is the same as ic. Substitute ic in Eqn. (iv) to get vr1
relationship for resistor (V=IR, Ohm’s law) is not a as
differential equation or it’s a zero order differential v r 1 (t )  Ee  t R1C (xii)
equation. It’s possible to have a second order
circuit. Revision 7.1
Rearranging Eqn. (vi) gives Revise indices, logarithms, differentiation, and
dv 1 integration in Engineering Mathematics.
 c  ( vc  E )
dt R1C
Problem 7.1
dvc dt
 (a) Suppose E  1000 V , C  1 F , and R1  1 M .
(v c  E ) R1C Determine the time constant and sketch the graphs
Integrating both sides gives of vc, ic, i1 and vr1 against time t.

 
dvc dt (b) Suppose R1 is changed to 2 MΩ while all other
 quantities remain the same as in (a). Determine the
( vc  E ) R1C time constant and sketch the graphs of vc, ic, i1 and
t vr1 against time t on the same graph sheet as in (a).
Log e (vc  E )   k (vii) Compare the effect of change in time constant.
R1C Solution
where k is the constant of integration. (a) Time constant is   (10 6 )(10 6 )  1
Use the initial condition to determine the constant k.
Substitute t  0 and vc  0 in Eqn. (vii).
vc (t )  1000  1000e t
0 1000 t 1 t
Log e (0  E )   k ic (t )  e  e
R1C 1000000 1000
1 t
 k  Log e ( E ) (viii) i1 (t )  ic (t )  e
1000
Substitute for k in Eqn. (vii).
v r 1 (t )  1000 e  t
t
Log e (vc  E )    Log e (  E ) (b) Time constant is   2 (10 6 )(10 6 )  2
R1C
vc (t )  1000  1000et / 2
v E t
Log e  c  1000 t / 2 1 t / 2
 E  R1C ic (t )  e  e
2000000 2000
Conversion from logarithm to indices gives
1 t / 2
(vc  E ) i1 (t )  ic (t )  e
 e t R1C 2000
E
v r 1 (t )  1000 e  t / 2
where the exponential is e  2.7183. For the sake of illustration, the graphs of vc, ic and
vr1 in Figs. 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7 respectively are drawn to
vc  E  Eet R1C
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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

scale with the help of a Digital computer program. the resistor.

It’s sufficient to just sketch the graphs. i1 is equal to ic. 3. At starting, maximum DC current flows.
vc, ic, i1, and vr1 are all zero for t < 0. The higher the value of R1, the lower is the starting
current. At starting, the whole applied emf is across
the resistor.
4. As charging progresses, current decreases,
voltage across the resistor decreases and the voltage
across the capacitor increases.
5. At the completion of charging, the current
stop flowing, the voltage across the resistor becomes
zero and the voltage across the capacitor becomes
equal to the applied emf.
6. Time taken for completion of charging is
proportional to the time constant τ. E and C are kept
constant. When R1 is 2 MΩ, time constant τ is 2, it
takes about 12.5 seconds for vc to reach 1000V as
shown in Fig. 7.5. When R1 is 1 MΩ, time constant τ
is 1, it takes about 6 seconds for vc to reach 1000V as
Fig. 7.5 Voltage across the capacitor vc shown in Fig. 7.5 and Fig. 7.6. If R1 is constant,
smaller C will lead to faster charging.
7. Capacitor voltage cannot change
instantaneously. The voltage grows exponentially
with time. The larger the time constant, the slower is
the charging process.

7.2.3 The Charge on the Plates

Electrons move in the opposite direction to the
flow of current ic as shown in Fig. 7.8. The exit of
electrons from the upper plate creates charge +Q on
the upper plate. The arrival of equal number of
electrons at the lower plate creates charge –Q on the
lower plate. These electrons do not pass through
the dielectric material. The charge Q, the DC
applied voltage V across the capacitor and the
Capacitance C are related as in Eqn. 7.4.
Fig. 7.6 Current through the capacitor ic
Q  CV (7.4)

1000 7.2.4 The Electric Field

900 The charge Q on the plates establishes an
Voltage across the resistor R1 vr1 (V)

800
Electric Field E in the dielectric as shown in Fig.
700
7.8. The electric field is one of the fundamental
fields in nature [7]. It causes a charged body to be
600
attracted to or repelled by other charged bodies.
500

400

300

200 (b) R1 = 2 M Ω

100 (a) R1 = 1 M Ω

0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
t (seconds)
Fig. 7.7 Voltage across the resistor vr1

7.2.2 Observations Fig. 7.8 Charge Q on the Capacitor

1. Smaller value of R1 gives smaller value for
time constant and the charging is faster. Similarly, A charge Q exact attractive electric force or
smaller value of C gives smaller value of time repulsive electric force on an opposite charge q near
constant and the charging is faster. it and a like charge q near it respectively. The space
2. At starting, the whole applied emf is across or the region where this effect or this force is felt is

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

known as the Electric field of that charge Q. molecule is like an electric dipole with the positive
The quantity of that force is directly proportional and the negative charged parts of the molecule
to the product Qq and is inversely proportional to slightly far apart as shown in Fig. 7.9(a) [10]. Polar
the distance between Q and q according to molecules’ orientations are random. The Electric
Coulomb’s law of Electrostatics. Electric field is field causes the polar molecules’ orientations to align
associated with lines of electric force or electric with the direction of the field as illustrated in Fig
flux just like magnetic field is associated with lines 7.9(a) and Fig. 7.10 [10].
of magnetic flux. Non-polar molecules are not like electric dipoles.
The magnitude of force experienced by a unit The electric field induces electric dipoles in non-polar
positive charge at any point in an electric field is molecules by forcing the positive and negative
termed Electric Field Strength which is given by charges slightly apart as illustrated in Fig. 7.9(b) and
Eqn. 7.5. E is measured in Volt/meter or Fig. 7.10 [10].
Newton/Coulomb. Electric flux density is given by
Eqn. 7.6. D is measured in Coulomb/m2. D and E 7.2.6 Displacement current
are related as in Eqn. 7.7. The alignment of polar molecule’s orientation
V with the direction of the Electric field in Fig. 7.9(a)
E (7.5) involves slight rotation of non-mobile charges. Slight
d
displacement of charges occurs when the Electric
Q
D (7.6) field forces the Non-polar molecules’ positive and
A negative charges slightly apart in Fig. 7.9(b). These
D   0 r E   E (7.7) slight rotationand or slight displacement of non-
The direction of the field in the dielectric material mobile charges are known as displacement current.
is from the +Q to the –Q opposite the direction of Displacement current occurs in the dielectric material
the Voltage across the capacitor as shown in Fig. 7.8. while conduction current flows from the plates
through the external wire to the supply during
Assignment 7.1 charging or through the load during discharging.
(a) State the Coulomb’s law of Electrostatics. Conduction current is the actual movement of free
(b) List the properties of electric lines of flux or electrons.
electric lines of force.
Assignment 7.2
7.2.5 Polarization of Dielectric Molecules (a) What is displacement current?
There are no free electrons in dielectric materials. (b) Distinguish between displacement current and
The molecules are either polar or non-polar. A polar conduction current.

(a) Polar molecules

(b) Nonpolar molecules

Fig. 7.9 Polarization of Dielectric materials (Displacement current) [9]

73
 Fig. 7.11 Equivalent circuit of a practical capacitor
Fig. 7.10 Dielectric material: alignment of Electric
Dipoles with the Electric Field [9] Assignment 7.3
(a) What is leakage current?
7.2.7 Energy stored in a Capacitor (b) What is responsible for the existence of
A resistor generates heat energy as current passes leakage current?
through it. The heat is lost to the atmosphere and is (c) Draw the equivalent circuit of a practical
never recoverable. An ideal capacitor does not capacitor. What does each component represents?
consume energy. It stores recoverable energy as given (c) Capacitor C1 has no leakage current.
by Eqn. (7.8). Capacitor C2 has leakage current. The two capacitors
1 1 have equal cross-sectional area A, separation distance
W  CV 2  QV (7.8) d and relative permittivity εr. Equal voltage V is
2 2 applied across the two capacitors for equal period of
time T. Are the two capacitors going to store the
7.2.8 Dielectric strength same quantity of energy? Give reason(s) for your
If the potential difference (p.d.) across a dielectric answer.
material is increased beyond a certain value known as (d) Distinguish between charging current,
breakdown voltage, the material breaks down. The displacement current and leakage current.
electrons will acquire enough energy to break away
from bonds. Under this circumstance, conduction Problem 7.2
current flows through the dielectric material. The
Suppose E  1000 V , C  1 F , and the
Electric field strength or the potential gradient
necessary to cause the breakdown of a dielectric distance between the parallel plates is d  10 mm .
material is known as its dielectric strength. The dielectric material is vacuum. The capacitor is
Dielectric strength is measured in MV/m. fully charged. Determine (i) the charge Q, (ii) the
cross-sectional area of the plates, (iii) the Electric
7.2.8 Leakage current field intensity, (iv) the Electric flux density, and (iv)
It is stated in section 7.2.4 that there are no free the energy stored in the capacitor.
electrons in a dielectric material. Therefore, there is Solution
no conduction current flowing through a dielectric After full charge, V  1000 V
material. This is true for an ideal or a perfect (i) The Charge is
dielectric material. No dielectric material is perfect. Q  CV  10 6 x 1000  1 x 10 -3 C  1 mC
There may be very few free electrons due to (ii) The relative permittivity of vacuum is 1. The
impurities in the dielectric material. The movement cross-sectional area A is given by
of these few free electrons in the dielectric material A
constitutes what is called leakage current which is a C   0 r
conduction type of current. The practical capacitor is d
seen as a parallel combination of the ideal capacitor Cd 10 6 (10 x 10 3 )
A   1129 m 2
(having ideal dielectric material) and a resistor R as  0  r 8.854 x 10 (1)12

shown in Fig. 7.11. (iii) The Electric field intensity is

R represents the impurities in the dielectric
V 1000
material and it draws the leakage current. R reduces E   10 5 V/m  0.1 MV/m
the energy stored in the capacitor. Part of the d 10 x 10 3
supplied energy is wasted heat in R (the impurities). (iv) The Electric flux density is
Only displacement current occurs in the ideal Q 1 x 10 3
capacitor. Leakage current is assumed negligible D   0.88574  C / m 2
A 1129
in all the worked examples and exercises in this (iv) The Energy stored in the capacitor is
chapter.

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

1  k  Log e (V0 ) (viii)

W  CV 2  0.5 x 10  6 x 1000 2  0.5 J
2 Substitute for k in Eqn. (vii).
t
7.3 Discharging a Capacitor Loge (vc )    Loge (V0 )
R2C
7.3.1 The Discharging Process
Suppose the capacitor of Fig. 7.2 has been fully v  t
Log e  c   
charged to V0 Volts. Suppose Switch Sw2 is closed  V0  R2 C
and Switch Sw1 is opened at time t=0; the effective Conversion from logarithm to indices gives
portion of Fig 7.2 is shown in Fig. 7.12.
vc
At time t equal to zero when switch Sw2 is closed,  e t R2C
vc is V0. This is the initial condition and it’s restated V0
in Eqn. (i). where the exponential e  2.7183
vc  V0e t R2C
vc (t )  V0e t  (ix)
where   R2C (x)
τ is known as the time constant. The higher the
value of the time constant the lower is the rate at
which vc decreases, the lower is the rate of
Fig. 7.12 Discharging a Capacitor discharging the capacitor (the slower is the
discharging process).
Initial condition, vc t  0   V0 (i) Eqn. (ix) is the expression for the voltage across
KCL, ic   i 2 (ii) the capacitor at time t. It’s termed zero input
response. The response has one component.
KVL, 0  v r 2  v c (iii) It’sknown as transient response. Transient response
No source of emf. decreases as time t increase and it varnishes as t
v r 2  i2 R 2   ic R 2 (iv) assume large value.
dvc Substitute vc in Eqn. (v) and differentiate to get ic as
But ic  C (v) V0 t R2C
dt ic (t )   e (xi)
Substitute for ic in Eqn. (iv). R2
dv Substitute for ic in Eqn. (ii).
 vr 2   R2C c
dt ic   i 2
Substitute for vr2 in Eqn. (iii). V0 t R2C
dv  i2  ic  e (xii)
 0   R2C c  vc (vi) R2
dt Substitute ic in Eqn. (iv) to get vr2 as
Eqn. (vi) is a first order differential equation. The V0 t R2C
circuit of Fig. 7.12 is therefore a first order circuit. vr 2  i2 R2  R2 e
Rearranging Eqn. (vi) gives R2
dv
 c  c
v vr 2  V0e t R2C (xiii)
dt R2C
dvc dt Problem 7.3
 (a) Suppose, the initial condition of the capacitor of
vc R2 C Fig. 7.12 at time t = 0 is V 0  1000 V , C  1 F ,
Integrating both sides gives
and R2  2 M . Determine the time constant and

 
dv c dt sketch the graphs of vc, ic, i1 and vr12 against time t.

vc R2 C (b) Suppose R1 is changed to 500 kΩ while all other
quantities remain the same as in (a). Determine the
t time constant and sketch the graphs of vc, ic, i1 and
Loge (vc )   k (vii)
R2C vr2 against time t on the same graph sheet as in (a).
where k is the constant of integration. Comment on the effect of change in time constant.
Use the initial condition to determine the constant k. Solution
Substitute t  0 and v c  V 0 in Eqn. (vii). (a) Time constant is   2 (10 6 )(10 6 )  2
0 vc (t )  1000e t / 2
Loge (V0 )   k
R2C

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

1000 t / 2 1 t / 2 constant and the discharging is faster.

ic (t )   e  e
2000000 2000
1 t / 2
i2 (t )  ic (t )  e
2000
v r 2 (t )  1000 e  t / 2
(b) Time constant is   0 .5(10 6 )(10 6 )  0 .5
vc (t )  1000e2t
1000  2t 1  2t
ic (t )   e  e
500000 500
1  2t
i2 (t )  ic (t )  e
500
v r 2 (t )  1000 e 2 t
For the sake of illustration, the graphs of vc, ic, i2, and
vr2 in Figs. 7.13, 7.14, 7.15 and 7.16 respectively are Fig. 7.15 Current throughthe resistor i2
drawn to scale with the help of a Digital computer
program. It’s sufficient to just sketch the graphs. i1 is
equal but opposite to ic. ic, i2, and vr2 are all zero for t
< 0. vc, is 1000V for t ≤ 0.

Voltage across the resistor R2 vr2 (V)

Fig. 7.16 Voltage acrossthe resistor vr2

2. The voltage across the capacitor is equal to

Fig. 7.13 Voltage across the capacitor vc the voltage across the resistor. The energy stored in
the capacitor is being released to the resistor. The
capacitor acts like a voltage source with diminishing
emf. The capacitor sends out current as ic is negative.
3. At starting, maximum DC current flows
from the capacitor to the resistor. The higher the
value of R2, the lower is the starting current.
4. As discharging progresses, supply current to
the resistor decreases, voltage across the resistor
decreases.
5. At the completion of discharging, the
current stops flowing, the voltage across both the
resistor and capacitor becomes zero.
6. Time taken for completion of discharging is
proportional to the time constant τ. V0 and C are
kept constant. When R2 is 2 MΩ, time constant τ is 2,
it takes about 12.5 seconds for vc to reach 0V as
Fig. 7.14Current throughthe capacitor ic shown in Fig. 7.12. When R2 is 0.5 MΩ, time
constant τ is 0.5, it takes about 3.5 seconds for vc to
7.3.2 Observations reach 0V as shown in Fig. 7.12. If R2 is constant,
1. Smaller value of R2 gives smaller value for smaller C will lead to faster discharging.
time constant and the discharging is faster. Similarly, 7. Capacitor voltage cannot change
smaller value of C gives smaller value of time instantaneously. The voltage decays exponentially

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

with time. The larger the time constant, the slower dvc
the discharging process. V  RC  vc (iv)
dt
Rearranging Eqn. (iv) gives
Problem 7.4
dv 1
The voltage of Fig. 7.17 is applied to a series  c  ( vc  V )
circuit of 3 Ω resistor and 200 μF capacitor of Fig. dt RC
7.18. Assume that the initial state of the capacitor is dvc dt

v c (t  0)  1 V . Sketch the graph of the voltage (vc  V ) RC
across the capacitor and the current through the Integrating both sides gives
capacitor against time. Determine the values of the

 
voltage across the capacitor at time t = 2, 4, 6 and 8 dvc dt
milli-seconds. Determine the values of the current 
through the capacitor at time t = 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 ( vc  V ) RC
milli-seconds. t
Loge (vc  V )   k (v)
RC
where k is the constant of integration.
Use the initial condition to determine the constant k.
Substitute t  t1 and v c (t  t1 )  V 0 in Eqn. (v). A
general starting time t1 and a general initial voltage V0
Fig. 7.17 Voltage supply to Fig. 7.18 are being used so that the same expression can apply
for all the phases.
t
Log e (V0  V )   1  k
RC
t
 k  Log e (V0  V )  1 (vi)
RC
Substitute for k in Eqn. (vI).
t t
Log e (vc  V )    Log e (V0  V )  1
Fig. 7.18 RC series circuit RC RC
 (v  V )  (t  t1 )
Solution Log e  c   
First, classify the events in the circuit into four  (V0  V )  RC
phases due to changes in the input voltage level as Conversion from logarithm to indices gives
shown in Fig. 7.19. {At the end of each phase (vc  V )
calculate the voltage across the capacitor as this will  e (t t1) RC
(V0  V )
serve as the initial condition in the next phase.
Calculation of the current at the end of each phase is where the exponential e  2.7183
optional.}  vc  (V0  V )e  (t t1 )   V (vii)

transient steady state

response response
vc (t )  V  Ve (t t1 )   V0e (t t1 )  (viii)

zero state zero input

response response
Fig. 7.19 Four phases where   RC (ix)
Eqns. (vii) and (viii) are the same. Eqn. (vii) is
KCL expects that current in the source, resistor and expressed in terms of transient response which
capacitor will be equal as indicated in Fig. 7.18. varnishes with time and steady state response
Phase 1. From 0 to 3 milli-seconds which does not dependent on time but depends on
Initial condition, v c t  0   V0  0 (i) the input voltage. Eqn. (viii) is expressed in terms of
KVL, V  iR  vc (ii) zero state response which is only due to the input
voltage and zero input response which is only due
dvc to the initial state or condition of the capacitor.
But for the capacitor, i  C (iii)
dt Differentiate vc of Eqn. (vii).
Substitute for i in Eqn. (ii).

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

dvc 1 Phase 2 from 3 to 5 milli-seconds ( 3  t  5 ).

   (V0  V )e (t t1 ) 
dt  At the end of phase 1, vc (t  3 x 103 )  4.9730 V
1 t1  3 x 10 3 and V 0  4 .9730 V
 (V0  V )e (t t1 ) 
RC Supply voltage V in this phase is V  0 V as shown
dv in Fig. 7.19.
Substitute c Eqn. (iii). Substitute for t1, V and V0 in Eqns (vii) and (x).
dt
1 vc  (V0  V )e  (t t1 )   V
i(t )  C (V0  V )e (t t1 )  3
) /( 6 x 104 )
RC (x)
vc  4.9730e(t 3 x 10
1 when t  4 x 10 3
  (V0  V )e (t t1 ) 
R vc  4.9730e( 4 x 10
3
3 x 103 ) /( 6 x 104 )
Eqns. (vii) and (x) are to be used for the four phases.
Generally, R  3  , C  200 μF and vc  0.9393V
  RC  (3)( 200 x 10 6 )  6 x 10 4 . when t  5 x 10 3
3
3 x 103 ) /( 6 x 104 )
Phase 1 from 0 to 3 milli-seconds ( 0  t  3 ). vc  4.9730e(5 x 10
It’s given that the initial condition of the capacitor at
t  0 is 1 V. vc  0.1774V
t1  0 and V 0  1 V This is the capacitor voltage at the end of phase 2
and will serve as initial condition V0 at the beginning
Supply voltage V in this phase is V  5 V as shown of phase 3.
in Fig. 7.18. 1
Substitute for t1, V and V0 in Eqns. (vii) and (x). i (t )   (V0  V )e (t t1 ) 
R
vc  (V0  V )e  (t t1 )   V 1 3 4
4 i (t )   (4.9730)e ( t 3 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 )
vc  4et /(6 x 10 )
5 3
when t  2 x 10 3 when t  3 x 10 3
3
) /( 6 x 104 ) 1
vc  4e( 2 x 10 5 i   (4.9730)e 0
3
vc  4.8573V i  1.6577 A
when t  3 x 10 3 when t  4 x 10 3
vc  4e(3 x 10
3
) /( 6 x 104 )
5 1 3 3 4
i (t )   (4.9730)e ( 4 x 10 3 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 )
3
vc  4.9730V
i  0.3131A
This is the capacitor voltage at the end of phase 1
when t  5 x 10 3
and will serve as initial condition V0 at the beginning
of phase 2. 1 3 3 4
i (t )   (4.9730)e ( 5 x 10 3 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 )
1 3
i (t )   (V0  V )e (t t1 )  i  0.0591A
R
1 4
Phase 3 from 5 to 7 milli-seconds ( 5  t  7 ).
i (t )   (4)e t ( 6 x 10 ) At the end of phase 2, vc (t  5 x 103 )  0.1774 V
3
when t  0 t1  5 x 10 3 and V 0  0 .1774 V
1 Supply voltage V in this phase is V  4 V as shown
i   (4)e 0
3 in Fig. 7.19.
i  1.3333 A Substitute for t1, V and V0 in Eqns (vii) and (x).
when t  2 x 10 3 V0 V  0.1774 4  3.8226
1 4 4
i   (4)e  ( 2 x 10 ) ( 6 x 10 ) vc  (V0  V )e  (t t1 )   V
3 3
) /( 6 x 104 )
vc  3.8226 e (t 5 x 10 4
i  0.0476 A
when t  3 x 10 3 when t  6 x 10 3
3
5 x 103 ) /( 6 x 104 )
1 4 4
i   (4)e  (3 x 10 ) ( 6 x 10 )
vc  3.8226 e(6 x 10 4
3 vc  3.2780V
i  0.0090 A

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

when t  7 x 10 3 presented in Figs. 7.20 and 7.21.

( 7 x 103 5 x 103 ) /( 6 x 104 )
vc  3.8226 e 4
vc  3.8636V
This is the capacitor voltage at the end of phase 3
and will serve as initial condition V0 at the beginning
of phase 4. Fig. 7.20 Sketch of vc against time t
1
i (t )   (V0  V )e (t t1 ) 
R
1 3 4
i (t )   (3.8226)e  (t 5 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 )
3
when t  5 x 10 3
1
i   (3.8226)e 0
3
i  1.2742 A
when t  6 x 10 3
1 3 3 4 Fig. 7.21 Sketch of i against time t
i (t )   (3.8226)e  ( 6 x 10 5 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 )
3 7.4 Series and Parallel Connections
i  0.2407 A 7.4.1 Series Connection
when t  7 x 10 3 Fig. 7.22(a) shows three capacitors connected in
1 3 3 4 series. Due to conservation of charges, the same
i (t )   (3.8226)e ( 7 x 10 5 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 ) quantity of charge appears on the capacitors. The
3
voltages across the three capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are
i  0.0455 A added together to give the total voltage VT as in Fig.
Phase 4 from 7 to ∞ milli-seconds ( t  7 ). 7.22(b) and Eqn. (7.9). Remember Eqn. (7.4) which
At the end of phase 3, vc (t  7 x 103 )  3.8636 V relates the capacitance of a capacitor with the charge
on the capacitor and the voltage across the capacitor.
t1  7 x 10 3 and V 0  3 .8636 V
Suppose the capacitor Ce of Fig. 7.22(b) is equivalent
Supply voltage V in this phase is V  0 V as shown to the combination of the three capacitors C1, C2,
in Fig. 7.19. and C3; the relationship between VT and Ce is given
Substitute for t1, V and V0 in Eqns (vii) and (x). by Eqn. (7.10). Equating Eqns. (7.9) and (7.10) gives
V0 V  0.1774 4  3.8226 Eqn. (7.11) and (7.12). Therefore, the reciprocal of
the equivalent capacitance of the capacitors in series
vc  (V0  V )e  (t t1 )   V is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of all the
vc  3.8636 e(t 7 x 10
3
) /( 6 x 104 ) capacitances.

when t  8 x 10 3
3
7 x 103 ) /( 6 x 104 )
vc  3.8636 e(8 x 10
vc  0.7297V
1
i (t )   (V0  V )e (t t1 ) 
R
1 3 4
i (t )   (3.8636)e  (t  7 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 )
3
when t  7 x 10 3
1
i   (3.8636)e 0
3
i  1.2879 A
when t  8 x 10 3 Fig. 7.22 Three Capacitors in series
1 3 3 4
i (t )   (3.8636)e  (8 x 10  7 x 10 ) /( 6 x 10 )
3
i  0.2432 A
The sketch of the waveforms of vc and i are

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

VT  V1  V2  V3 equal to the sum of the capacitances of all the

(7.9) capacitors.
Q Q Q
   QT  Q1  Q2  Q3
C1 C2 C3 (7.15)
 C1V  C2V  C3V
Q
VT  (7.10) Q T  C eV (7.16)
Ce
QT  C eV  C1V  C 2V  C 3V (7.17)
Q Q Q Q
VT     (7.11)  C e  C1  C 2  C 3 (7.18)
Ce C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1 7.4.3 Voltage divide ratio in series connection
    (7.12) Fig. 7.24(a) shows two capacitors connected in
Ce C1 C2 C3
series. Fig. 7.24(b) shows the equivalent capacitance.
For two capacitors in series, Eqn. (7.12) becomes
Eqn. (7.9) is adjusted to Eqn. (7.19). Eqns. (7.10) and
1 1 1 (7.14) are repeated as Eqns. (7.20) and (7.21)
  (7.13)
Ce C1 C2 respectively.
and therefore,
CC
Ce  1 2 (7.14)
C1  C2
For two capacitors in series, the equivalent
capacitance is the product of the two capacitances
divided by the sum of the two capacitances.

7.4.2 Parallel Connection

When two or more capacitors are connected
between the same two points such that the same
voltage drop V is applied across each of them as
shown in Fig. 7.23(a), they are said to be connected
in parallel. The charges on the three capacitors C1, C2, Fig. 7.24 Two Capacitors in series
and C3 are added together to give the total charge QT
as in Eqn. (7.15). Q Q
VT  V1  V2   (7.19)
C1 C 2
Q
VT  (7.20)
Ce
CC
Ce  1 2 (7.21)
C1  C 2
Substitute for Ce in Eqn. (7.20).
Q Q(C 1  C 2 )
VT  
Ce C 1C 2
Q(C 1  C 2 ) (7.22)
VT 
C 1C 2
Q Q
But V1  and V2  (7.23)
C1 C2

Fig. 7.23 Three Capacitors in parallel

Suppose the resistance Ce of Fig. 7.23(b) is

equivalent to the combination of the three capacitors
C1, C2, and C3; the relationship between QT and Ce is
given by Eqn. (7.16). Equating Eqns. (7.15) and (7.16)
gives Eqns. (7.17) and (7.18). Therefore, the
equivalent capacitance of the capacitors in series is

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

 Q  QT
 V1  V  (7.29)
C1 (C1  C 2 )
  Q(C1  C 2 ) 
VT  But Q1  C1V and Q2  C2V (7.30)
 C1C 2  Substitute for V in Eqn. (7.30).
 &   (7.24)
   C1  
 Q  Q1  QT   
    C1  C 2 
V2  C 2    (7.31)
VT Q(C1  C 2 )  & 
   
 C1C 2  Q  Q  C 2  
T 
 2  C1  C 2  
 C2 
V1  VT (C  C )  Eqn. (7.31) is known as charge divide ratio. The
 1 2
 two capacitors will share the charge according to this
 &  (7.25) ratio. The portion of the charge on a capacitor is the
 C1  total charge multiplied by the capacitance of the
V2  VT  capacitor divided by the sum of the two capacitances.
 (C1  C 2 )  Suppose C1, C2, and QT are 6 μF, 4 μF, and 20 mC
Eqn. (7.25) is referred to as voltage divide ratio. respectively, then Q1 and Q2 are 12 mC and 8 mC
The two capacitors will share the supply voltage respectively. The capacitor with higher capacitance
according to this ratio. The portion of the supply takes the higher quantity of charge.
voltage across a capacitor is the supply voltage
multiplied by the capacitance of the other capacitor Problem 7.5
divided by the sum of the two capacitances. Suppose A DC Voltage supply VT (12 V), C1 (1 μF), and
C1, C2, and VT are 2 μF, 3 μF and 10 V respectively, C2 (3 μF) are connected in series. Calculate the
then V1 and V2 are 6 V and 4 V respectively. The voltages V1 and V2 across C1 andC2 respectivelyusing
capacitor with higher capacitance takes smaller voltage divide ratio.
voltage. Solution
VT is to be shared between C1 and C2. Voltage divide
7.4.4 Charge Divide Ratio in Parallel Connection ratio for V1 and V2 are as follows
Fig. 7.25(a) shows two capacitors connected in C2 3
paralle. Fig. 7.25(b) shows the equivalent capacitance. V1  VT  (12)  9 V and
Eqns. (7.15), (7.16) and (7.18) are adjusted to give
C1  C2 1 3
Eqns. (7.26), (7.27) and (7.28) respectively. C1 1
V2  VT  (12) 3V
QT  Q1  Q 2 (7.26) C1  C2 1 3
Q T  C eV (7.27)
C e  C1  C 2 (7.28) Problem 7.6
A DC Voltage supply V (24 V), C1 (3 μF), and C2
(5 μF) are connected in parallel. Calculate
(a) the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor Ce,
(b) the charge QT on the equivalent capacitor (c)
Charges Q1 and Q2 on C1 and C2 respectively using
charge divide ratio.
Solution
(a) Equivalent capacitance is
C e  C1  C 2  3  5  8 F
(b) Charge QT is given as
QT  VC e  ( 24 )(8 x 10 6 )  192 C
(c) QT is to be divided between Q1 and Q2 according
to charge divide ratio
 C1  3
Fig. 7.25 Two Capacitors in parallel Q1  QT    192 x 10  6  72 C
 C1  C 2  35
Substitute Ce in Eqn. (7.27).  C2  5
Q2  QT    192 x 10  6  120 C
Q T  C eV  (C 1  C 2 )V
 C1  C 2  35

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

Problem 7.7 (a) The charges Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 on the capacitors
Three capacitors C1 (12 μF), C2 (6 μF), and C3 (4 C1, C2, C3, and C4.
μF) are connected in series and charge Q (96 μC) is (b) The equivalent capacitance Ce.
on each capacitor. Determine (c) The charge on the equivalent capacitance Ce.
(a) The voltage V1, V2, and V3 across the capacitors (d) The energy stored in each of C1, C2, C3, C4 and Ce.
C1, C2 and C3 respectively. (e) Should the energy stored in Ce be equal to the
(b) The supply voltage. sum of the energy stored in C1, C2, C3, and C4? What
(c) The equivalent capacitance Ce. is your expectation? Use your answers in (d) to
(d) The energy stored in each of C1, C2, C3 and Ce. confirm your expectation.
(e) Should the energy stored in Ce be equal to the Solution
sum of the energy stored in C1, C2 and C3? What is Given that C1  4 μF , C2  6 μF , C3  3 μF ,
your expectation? Use your answers in (d) to confirm
your expectation. C3  7 μF and V  60 V .
Solution (a) The charges are
Given that C1  12 μF , C2  6 μF , C3  4 μF , and Q1  C1V  4 x 106 x 60  240 μC
Q  96 μC . Q2  C2V  6 x 106 x 60  360 μC
6
Q 96 x 10 Q3  C3V  3 x 106 x 60  180 μC
(a) V1    8V
C1 12 x 106
6
Q4  C4V  7 x 106 x 60  420 μC
Q 96 x 10 (b) The equivalent capacitance is
V2    16 V
C2 6 x 106 Ce  C1  C2  C3  C4  4  6  3  7  20 μF
Q 96 x 106 (c) The charge on the equivalent capacitance Ce is
V3    24 V given as
C3 4 x 106
QT  Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4
(b) The supply voltage is
VT  V1  V2  V3  8  16  24  48 V  240  360  180  420  1200 μC
Alternatively
(c) The equivalent capacitance Ce is given as
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 QT  CeV  20 x 60  1200 μF
      (d) Energy stored in the capacitors are
Ce C1 C2 C3 12 6 4
1
1 2  3 6 1 W1  Q1V  0.5(240 x 10 6 )(60)  7.2 mJ
   2
12 12 2 1
Ce  2 μF W2  Q2V  0.5(360 x 10 6 )(60)  10.8 mJ
2
(d) Energy stored in the capacitors are
1
1 W3  Q3V  0.5(180 x 10 6 )(60)  5.4 mJ
2
W1  C1V1  0.5(12 x 10 6 )(8) 2  384 μJ 2
2 1
W4  Q4V  0.5(420 x 10 6 )(60)  12.6 mJ
1 2 2
W2  C 2V2  0.5(6 x 10 6 )(16) 2  768 μJ
2 1
We  QT V  0.5(1200 x 10 6 )(60)  36.0 mJ
1 2 2
W3  C3V3  0.5(4 x 10 6 )(24) 2  1152 μJ (e) My expectation is that the energy stored in Ce
2
should be equal to the sum of the energy stored in C1,
1 2
We  C eVT  0.5(2 x 10 6 )(48) 2  2304 μJ C2, C3, and C4. This is because Ce is equivalent to the
2 parallel combination of C1, C2, C3, and C4.
(e) My expectation is that the energy stored in Ce
W1  W2  W3  W4  7.2  10.8  5.4  12.6
should be equal to the sum of the energy stored in C1,
C2 and C3. This is because Ce is equivalent to the  36 mJ
series combination of C1, C2 and C3. which is equal to We.
W1  W2  W3  384  768  1152  2304 μJ
Problem 7.9
which is equal to We.
The equivalent capacitance of two capacitors C1
and C2 connected in series is 4 μF. Suppose C1 is 12
Problem 7.8
μF. Calculate (a) C2 (b) the equivalent resistance of
Four capacitors C1 (4 μF), C2 (6 μF), C3 (3 μF),
the parallel connection of C1 and C2.
and C4 (7 μF) are connected in parallel across a 60V
Solution
supply. Determine

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

Given that C1  12 μF , C2  unknown. For C1 and

C2 in series, Ce  4 μF .
C1C2 12C2
(a) Ce   4
C1  C2 12  C2
12C2  48  4C2
8C2  48
C2  6 μF
(b) For C1 and C2 in parallel,
Ce  C1  C2  12  6  18 μF

Problem 7.10
Three capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are connected in
parallel across a 24 V. C1 is 1 μF, the charge on C2 is
Q2=120 μC, and the energy stored in C3 is W3 = 576
μJ. Calculate (a) C2, C3, and the equivalent
capacitance (b). the total charge on the three
capacitors. Fig. 7.26 A network of capacitors
Solution
Given that V  24 V , C1  1 μF , Q2  120 μC , and Solution
In this solution, “,” and “//” are used to indicate
the energy in C3 is W3  576 μJ . series and parallel connections respectively.
(a) Q2  C2V  C2 x 24  120 μC C11 and C10 are in parallel.
C10 //C11  C10  C11  1  2  3 μF
C2  120 x 106 / 24  5 μF
C8, C9, and C10//C11 are in series.
Energy in C3 is
1 1 1 1
1   
W3  C3V 2  0.5C3 x 24 2  576 μJ C8 , C9 , C10 //C11 C8 C9 C10 //C11
2
C 3  576 /( 0.5 x 24 2 )  2 μF 1 1 1 3 1 2
    1
2 6 3 6
The equivalent capacitance Ce is
C8 , C9 , C10 //C11  1 μF
Ce  C1  C2  C3  1  5  2  8 μF
Let Ce1 be the equivalent capacitance of parallel
(b) The total charge on the three capacitors is QT. connection of C2, C3, C4, and series (C8, and C9,
QT  CeV  8 x 106 x 24  192 μC C10//C11)
Alternatively, calculate Q1 and Q3. Ce1  C2  C3  C4  (C8 , C9 , C10 //C11 )
Q1  C1V  1 x 106 x 24  24 μC  3  5  3  1  12 μF
6
Q3  C3V  2 x 10 x 24  48 μC C6 and C7 are in parallel.
C6 //C 7  C6  C7  1  5  6 μF
QT  Q1  Q2  Q3  24  120  48  192 μC
C1, Ce1, C5, and C6//C7 are in series. Their equivalent
is Ce.
Problem 7.11
1 1 1 1 1
Determine the equivalent Capacitance between    
terminals M and N in Fig. 7.26. Ce C1 Ce1 C5 C6 //C 7
1 1 1 1 3 1 6  2
     1
4 12 2 6 12
Ce  1 μF
The equivalent capacitance between terminals M and
N is 1 μF.

7.5 Multi-plate Capacitor

Fig. 7.27(a) shows a multi-plate capacitor. The
plates are numbered 1 to 8. The plates with odd
numbers are connected to terminal A while the plates
with even numbers are connected to terminal B.

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Apart from plates 1 and 8, each of the other plates Q 21.513 x 106
actually pair with two neighboring plates to form D   0.359 mC/m2
capacitors as shown in the equivalent circuit of Fig. A 600 x 10 4
7.27(b). For example plate 2 joins plate 1 to form a (e) Energy stored in the capacitor is
capacitor. The same plate 2 also joins plate 3 to form 1
W  QV  0.5(21.513 x 106 )(300)
another capacitor. The eight plates become 7 2
capacitors in parallel.  3.227 mJ

7.6 Composite-Dielectric Capacitors

The type of capacitors studied so far is the type
with a single dielectric material between the plates as
illustrated in Fig. 7.28 with the dielectric painted with
blue color [10]. The capacitance is given by Eqn. (7.1)
which is repeated as Eqn (7.33). εr is the relative
permittivity of the dielectric material.
A
C   0 r (7.33)
d
A Capacitor with two or more different dielectric
materials between the plates is referred to as
composite-dielectric capacitor. There is a boundary
between two dielectric materials. A composite-
dielectric capacitors containing n different dielectric
Fig. 7.27 A multi-plate capacitor materials is treated as a combination of n different
capacitors connected in series, or parallel or mixture
Suppose the areas of the plates are equal, the of series and parallel depending on the arrangement
separation distances between adjacent plates are of the dielectric materials in the space in between the
equal, and the same dielectric material is place two parallel plates. The area of the plate covered by
between the plates. Then, the capacitances of the each dielectric material, its thickness and its relative
seven capacitors are the same (C). The equivalent permittivity are important.
capacitance is 7C for 8 plates. If there are n plates,
the equivalent capacitance is by Eqn. (7.32).
C e  ( n  1)C (7.32)

Problem 7.12
A multi-plate capacitor is made of 10 plates
separated by mica sheets with 0.4 mm thickness and
relative permittivity of 6. Each plate has a cross-
sectional area of 600 cm2. 300V is maintained across
the capacitor. Calculate
(a) the capacitance of the capacitor Fig. 7.28 Capacitor with a single dielectric material
(b) the charge Q on the plates between the two parallel plates [10].
(c) the Electric field intensity
(d) the Electric flux density 7.6.1 Series Equivalent
(e) the energy stored in the capacitor. When each of the n dielectric materials covers the
Solution cross-sectional area of the plates but the total
(a) The capacitance for each 2 plates capacitor is separation distance d is shared between the dielectric
  A 8.854 x 10 12 (6)600 x 10 4 materials, the equivalent capacitor is a series
C o r 
d 0.4 x 10 3 connection of n capacitors. This is illustrated in Fig.
 7.9686 nF 7.29 for two dielectric materials. εr1 and εr2 are the
The capacitance of the multi-plate capacitor is relative permittivity’s of the two dielectric materials.
d1 and d2 are their thickness such that the sum of d1
C e  9C  9 x 7 .9686 x 10 9  0.07172 μF
and d2 is equal to the separation distance d. The two
(b) Q  C eV  0.07171 x 10 6 (300)  21.513 μC dielectric materials have the same cross-sectional area
(c)The Electric field intensity is A which is the same as that of the plates. Eqns. (7.34)
V 300 to (7.38) are applicable. Voltage across the capacitor
E  3
 750 x 103 V/m  0.75 MV/m is the sum of the voltages across the dielectric
d 0.4 x 10
materials. There can be more than two dielectric
(d) The Electric flux density is

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materials like in Problem 7.13.

Fig. 7.30 A Composite-dielectric capacitor

Fig. 7.29 Composite-Dielectric Capacitor with Series

Equivalent

d  d1  d 2 (7.34)
V  V1  V2 (7.35)
Fig. 7.31 A Composite-dielectric capacitor
A
C1   0  r 1 (7.36)
d1 Solution
A {Note: Figs 7.30 and Fig. 7.31 are the same
C 2   0 r 2 (7.37) composite-dielectric capacitor. Vertical orientation or
d2
horizontal orientation does not matter.}
1 1 1 Given that d  1.2 x 103 m , V  400 V ,
  (7.38)
C C1 C 2 A  500 x 104 m 2 .
Air: d1  0.1 x 103 m ,  r1  1.0006 .
Problem 7.13
A composite-dielectric capacitor has four Epoxy: d 2  0.4 x 103 m ,  r 2  3.3 .
dielectric materials with corresponding relative Nylon: d 3  0.5 x 10 m ,  r 3  4.1 .
-3

permittivity’s as shown in Figs. 7.30 and 7.31. The

separation distance between the plates is 1.2 mm. Teflon: d 4  d  d1  d 2  d 3  0.2 x 103 m ,
The Air, the Epoxy, and the Nylon are 0.1 mm, 0.4  r3  2 .
mm and 0.5 mm thick respectively. Each of the two
(a)
plates has a cross-sectional area of 500 cm2. 400V is
Air
maintained across the capacitor. Calculate
(a) the capacitance of the capacitor  o r1 A 8.854 x 1012 (1.0006)500 x 104
C1  
(b) the charge Q on the plates d1 0.1 x 103
(c) the Electric field intensity in the Air, the Epoxy,  4.4297 nF
Nylon, and the Teflon Dielectric materials Epoxy
(d) the Electric flux density in the air, the Epoxy,
Nylon, and the Teflon Dielectric materials   A 8.854 x 10 12 (3.3)500 x 10 4
C2  o r 2 
(e) the energy stored in the capacitor. d2 0.4 x 10 3
 3.6523 nF
Nylon
  A 8.854 x 10 12 (4.1)500 x 10 4
C3  o r 3 
d3 0.5 x 10 3
 3.6301 nF
Teflon

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

 o r 4 A 8.854 x 10 12 (2)500 x 10 4 applied voltage 400V, then there is an error

C4   somewhere.
d4 0.2 x 10 3
V1  V2  V3  V4
 4.4270 nF
C1, C2, C3 and C4 are in series as shown in Fig. 7.32.  90.2175  109.4204  110.0896  90.2725
The equivalent capacitance is given as  400 V
1 1 1 1 1 This confirmed that the calculations are correct. This
    exercise is not required as part of the solution.
Ce C1 C2 C3 C3
(d) The Electric flux density is
1 1 1 1 Q 0.3996363 x 106
    D   7.9927 μC/m2
4.4297 3.6523 3.6301 4.427
A 500 x 104
 Ce  0.9991 nF It’s the same for all the dielectric materials since Q
nF is the unit of the four capacitors in this case. If and A are the same for all of them.
there are nF, pF, and μF, the student must play save (e) Energy stored in the capacitor is
here by converting all to the same unit. 1
W  QV  0.5(0.3996363x 10-6 )(400)
2
 79.9273μJ

7.6.2 Parallel Equivalent

` When each of the n dielectric materials covers the
Fig. 7.32 Equivalent series capacitors separation distance but the cross-sectional area A of
the plates is shared between the dielectric materials,
(b) Charge on the Composite-dielectric capacitor is the equivalent capacitor is a parallel connection of n
Q  C eV  0 .9991 x 10 9 (400)  0.3996363 μC capacitors. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.33 for two
dielectric materials. εr1 and εr2 are the relative
The same charge will be on C1, C2, C3, and C4 since permittivity’s of the two dielectric materials. A1 and
they are in series. A2 are their cross-sectional areas such that the sum of
(c) To find the Electric field intensity, find the A1 and A2 is equal to the cross-sectional area A of the
voltage across the capacitors first. plates. The two dielectric materials have the same
Q 0.3996363 x 106 thickness d which is the same as the separation
V1    90.2175 V
C1 4.4297 x 109 distance d between the plates. The same voltage is
across the two dielectric materials. Charges Q1 and
V1 90.2175 Q2 are on the two dielectric materials. Q1 and Q2 add
E1    902.1746 x 103 V/m
d1 0.1 x 103 up to give the total charge Q on the plates. Eqns.
 902,174.6 V/m (7.39) to (7.43) are applicable. There can be more
than two dielectric materials like in Problem 7.14.
Q 0.3996363x 106
V2    109.4204 V
C2 3.6523 x 109
V2 109.4204
E2   3
 273.5511 x 103 V/m
d 2 0.4 x 10
 273,551.1V/m
Q 0.3996363x 106
V3    110.0896 V
C3 3.6301x 109
V3 110.0896
E3   3
 220.1792 x 103 V/m
d3 0.5 x 10
 220,179.2 V/m
Q 0.3996363 x 106
V4    90.2725 V
C4 4.4270 x 109
V4 90.2725
E4   3
 451.3624 x 103 V/m
d 4 0.2 x 10
Fig. 7.33 Composite-Dielectric Capacitor with
 451,362.4 V/m
Parallel Equivalent
Add V1, V2, V3 and V4. If the sum is not equal to the

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 o r1 A1
8.854 x 1012 (1.0006)300 x 104
C1  
A  A1  A2 (7.39) d 0.5 x 103
Q  Q1  Q2 (7.40)  0.53156 nF
A Epoxy
C1   0 r1 1 (7.41)
d   A 8.854 x 10 12 (3.3)500 x 10 4
C2  o r 2 
A
C 2   0 r 2 2 (7.42) d2 0.5 x 10 3
d  2.9218 nF
C  C1  C 2 (7.43) Nylon
  A 8.854 x 10 12 (4.1) 400 x 10 4
Problem 7.14 C3  o r 3 
A composite-dielectric capacitor has four d3 0.5 x 10 3
dielectric materials with corresponding relative  2.9041 nF
permittivity’s as shown in Fig. 7.34. The separation Teflon
distance d between the plates is 0.6 mm. The Air, the   A 8.854 x 10 12 (2)600 x 10 4
Epoxy, Nylon, and the Teflon have cross-sectional C4  o r 4 
areas of 300 cm2, 500 cm2, 400 cm2, and 600 cm2 d4 0.5 x 10 3
respectively. 600V is maintained across the capacitor.  2.1250 nF
Calculate
(a) the total cross-sectional area of the plates. C1, C2, C3 and C4 are in parallel as shown in Fig. 7.35.
(b) capacitance of the capacitor
(c) the charge Q on the plates
(d) the Electric field intensity in the Air, Epoxy,
Nylon, and Teflon Dielectric materials
(e) the Electric flux density in the air, Epoxy, Nylon,
and the Teflon Dielectric materials
(f) the energy stored in the capacitor.
Fig. 7.35 Equivalent series capacitors

The equivalent capacitance is given as

Ce  C1  C2  C3  C4
 0.53156  2.9218  2.9041  2.1250
 8.4825 nF
nF is the unit of the four capacitors in this case. If
there are nF, pF, and μF, the student must play save
here by converting all to the same unit.
(c) Charge on the Composite-dielectric capacitor is
Q  C eV  8.4825 x 10 9 (600)  5.0895 μC
Fig. 7.34 A Composite-dielectric capacitor The same voltage is across C1, C2, C3, and C4 since
they are in parallel.
Solution (d) The Electric field intensity
Given that d  0.5 x 103 m , V  600 V . V 600
Air: A1  300 x 10 4 m 2 ,  r1  1.0006 . E   1200 x 103 V/m
d 0.5 x 103
Epoxy: A2  500 x 10 4 m 2 ,  r 2  3.3 .  1.2 MV/m
4
Nylon: A3  400 x 10 m ,  r 3  4.1 .
2 It’s the same for all the dielectric materials since V
and d are the same for all of them.
Teflon: A4  600 x 10 4 m 2 ,  r 3  2 . (e) To find the Electric flux density, get the charges
(a) Total cross-sectional area of the plates is first
A  A1  A2  A3  A4 Q1  C1V  0.53156 x 10 9 x 600  0.318936 μC
 (300  500  400  600) x 104 m 2 Q1 0.318936 x 106
D1    10.6312 μC/m2
 1800 x 104 m 2 A1 300 x 104
(b) Q2  C 2V  2.9218 x 10 9 x 600  1.7531 μC
Air
Q2 1.7531 x 10 6
D2    35.062 μC/m2
A2 500 x 104

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Q3  C3V  2.9041 x 109 x 600  1.7425μC area A of the plates. A is the sum of A1 and A2.
These two sets are in parallel.
Q3 1.7425 x 106 The same voltage V is across the two sets.
D3    43.5625 μC/m2
A3 400 x 10 4 Charges Q1 and Q2 are on the two sets. Q1 and Q2
add up to give the total charge Q on the plates. The
Q4  C 4V  2.1250 x 10 9 x 600  1.275 μC same charge Q2 is on both the C2 and C3. Therefore,
Q4 1.275 x 10 6 C1 is in parallel with the series combination of C2 and
D4    21.25 μC/m 2 C3. Eqns. (7.44) to (7.52) are applicable. There can be
A4 600 x 10  4
more than three dielectric materials like in Problem
{Add Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4. If the sum is not equal to
7.15.
the total charge Q of 5.0895 μC, then there is an
error somewhere. A  A1  A2 (7.44)
Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4 A 3  A2 (7.45)
 0.318936  1.7531 1.7425  1.275 Q  Q1  Q2 (7.46)
 5.0895 μC Q 3  Q2 (7.47)
This confirmed that the calculations are correct. This d  d1  d 2  d 3 (7.48)
exercise is not required as part of the solution.} A
(f) Energy stored in the capacitor is C1   0 r1 1 (7.49)
d
1 A
W  QV  0.5(5.0895 x 106 )(600) C 2   0 r 2 2 (7.50)
2 d2
 1.5269 mJ
A
C 3   0 r 3 2 (7.51)
7.6.3 Series and Parallel Equivalent d3
When the n dielectric materials share both the CC
separation distance and the cross-sectional area A of C  C1  2 3 (7.52)
C2  C3
the plates, the equivalent capacitor is a mixture of
series and parallel connection of the n capacitors.
This is illustrated in Fig. 7.36 for three dielectric
materials. εr1, εr2, and εr3 are the relative permittivity’s Problem 7.15
of the three dielectric materials. A composite-dielectric capacitor has six dielectric
materials with corresponding relative permittivity’s as
shown in Fig. 7.37. The separation distance d
between the plates is 0.6 mm. The Epoxy, Nylon,
Teflon, Polyethylene, Vacuum, and PVC have
thickness of 0.1 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.4
mm, and 0.4 mm respectively. The Epoxy, Nylon,
Vacuum, and Teflon have the same cross-sectional
areas of 300 cm2 each. The Polyethylene has a cross-
sectional area of 500 cm2. The Air and Vacuum have
the same cross-sectional area of 200 cm2 each. 700 V
is maintained across the capacitor. Calculate
(a) the Capacitance of the capacitor
(b) the charge Q on the plates
(c) the energy stored in the composite-dielectric
capacitor.
(d) the Electric field intensity and the Electric flux
density in the Air, the Epoxy, Nylon, Teflon,
Fig. 7.36 Composite-Dielectric Capacitor with Series
Polyethylene, Vacuum, and PVC dielectric materials.
and Parallel Equivalent
Solution
The dielectric materials can be grouped into two Given that d  0.6 x 103 m , V  700 V .
sets. The second and the third dielectric materials
have equal cross-sectional areas A2 and A3 but share
the separation distance d. Therefore C2 and C3 are in
series. This is set 2. The first set is the first dielectric
material which has the same thickness as the sum of
the other two dielectric materials. Set 1 and set 2
have the same thickness but share the cross-sectional

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 o r 3 A3 8.854 x 10 12 (4.1)300 x 10 4

C3  
d3 0.2 x 10 3
 5.4452 nF
Teflon
  A 8.854 x 10 12 (2)300 x 10 4
C4  o r 4 4 
d4 0.3 x 10 3
 1.7708 nF
Fig. 7.37 A Composite-dielectric capacitor
C2, C3 and C4 are in series as shown in Fig. 7.37.
Air: d1  0.6 x 10 m 3 2
, 4
A1  200 x 10 m 2
, The equivalent capacitance of set 2 is given as
1 1 1 1
 r1  1.0006 .   
C 234 C 2 C3 C 4
Epoxy: d 2  0.1 x 10 3 m 2 , A2  300 x 10 4 m 2 ,
1 1 1
 r 2  3.3 .   
3 4 5.8436 5.4452 1.7708
Nylon: d3  0.2 x 10 m , A3  300 x 10 m ,
2 2

 r 3  4.1 .  C234  1.0876 nF

Set 3: Polyethylene, PVC, and Vacuum; C5 is in series
Teflon: d 4  0.3 x 10 3 m 2 , A4  300 x 10 4 m 2 , with C6 // C7 as shown in Fig. 7.37.
r4  2 . Polyethylene
Polyethylene:
3
 r 5  2.3 , d5  0.2 x 10 m
2
,   A 8.854 x 10 12 (2.3)500 x 10 4
C5  o r 5 5 
4
A5  500 x 10 m . 2 d3 0.2 x 10 3
3 4  5.0910 nF
PVC: d 6  0.4 x 10 m , A6  200 x 10 m ,
2 2
PVC
 r 6  3.7 .   A 8.854 x 10 12 (3.7)200 x 10 4
C6  o r 6 6 
Vacuum:  r 7  1.0 , d4 0.4 x 10 3
d 7  0.4 x 103 m2 , A7  300 x 104 m2 .  1.6380 nF
(a) Three sets are in parallel as shown in Fig, 7.38. Vacuum
  A 8.854 x 10 12 (1.0)300 x 10 4
C7  o r 7 7 
d4 0.4 x 10 3
 0.66405 nF
The equivalent capacitance of C6 // C7 is given as
C6 // 7  C6  C7
 1.6380  0.66405  2.30205 nF
The equivalent capacitance of (set 2) series
combination of C5 and C6 // C7 is given as
Fig. 7.38 Equivalent series capacitors 1 1 1 1 1
   
Set 1: Air C1 only. C567 C5 C6 // 7 5.0910 2.30205
  A 8.854 x 1012 (1.0006)200 x 104  C567  1.5852 nF
C1  o r1 1 
d 0.6 x 103 The overall equivalent capacitance is the parallel
 0.29531 nF combination of sets 1, 2 and 3 and is given as
Set 2: Epoxy, Nylon, and Teflon; C2, C3, and C4 are Ce  C1  C234  C567
in series.
Epoxy  0.29531  1.0876  1.5852  2.9681 nF
(b) Charge on the Composite-dielectric capacitor is
 o r 2 A2 8.854 x 10 12 (3.3)300 x 10 4
C2   Q  C eV  2.9681 x 10 9 (700)  2.0777 μC
d2 0.1 x 10 3 (c) the energy stored in the composite-dielectric
 5.8436 nF capacitor is
Nylon 1
W  QV  0.5(2.0777 x 106 )(700)
2
 0.727195 mJ

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(d) The Electric field intensity and the Electric flux with C6 // C7
density Q 5  C 567V  1.5852 x 10 9 (700)  1.1096 μC
Set 1: Air C1 only.
Q5  Q6  Q7
V 700
E1    1.1667 x 106 V/m Polyethylene
d1 0.6 x 103
Q 1.1096 x 10 6
 1.1667 MV/m V5  5   217.9533 V
C5 5.0910 x 10 9
Q1  C1V  0.29531 x 10 9 (700)  0.206717 μC V5 217.9533
E5    1.0898 x 106 V/m
Q1 0.206717 x 10 6
d 5 0.2 x 103
D1    10.3359 μC/m2
A1 200 x 104  1.0898 MV/m
Set 2: Epoxy, Nylon, and Teflon; C2, C3, and C4 are Q 1.1096 x 106
in series. D5  5  4
 22.1920 μC/m2
A5 500 x 10
Q2  C 234V  1.0876 x 10 9 (700)  0.76132 μC
PVC // Vacuum C5, C6 // C7. Charge for C6 // C7 is
Q4  Q3  Q2  0.76132 μC equal Q5.
Epoxy Q 1.1096 x 10 6
V6  V7  5   482.0052 V
Q 0.76132 x 10 6 C6 // 7 2.30205 x 10 9
V2  2   130.2827 V
C2 5.8436 x 10 9 PVC
V2 130.2827 Q6  C6V6  1.6380 x 10 9 (482.0052)
E2    1.302827 x 106 V/m
d 2 0.1 x 103  0.7895245 μC
 1.302827 MV/m V 482.0052
E6  6   1.2050 x 106 V/m
Q 0.76132 x 10 6 d 6 0.4 x 103
D2  2   25.3773 μC/m 2
A2 300 x 10  4  1.2050 MV/m
Nylon Q 0.7895245 x 106
Q 0.76132 x 10 6 D6  6  4
 39.4762 μC/m 2
V3  3   139.8149 V A6 200 x 10
C3 5.4452 x 10 9 Vacuum
V 139.8149 Q7  C7V7  0.66405 x 10 9 (482.0052)
E3  3   0.6990744 x 106 V/m
d 3 0.2 x 10 3  0.3200756 μC
 0.6990744 MV/m V 482.0052
E7  7   1.2050 x 106 V/m
Q3 0.76132 x 10 6 d 7 0.4 x 10 3
D3   4
 25.3773 μC/m2
A3 300 x 10  1.2050 MV/m
Teflon Q 0.3200756 x 10 6
Q 0.76132 x 10 6 D7  7   10.6692 μC/m2
V4  4   429.93 V A7 300 x 10  4
C4 1.7708 x 10 9  o r 7 A7 8.854 x 10 12 (1.0)300 x 10 4
V 429.93 C7  
E3  3   1.4331 x 106 V/m d4 0.4 x 10 3
3
d 3 0.3 x 10
 0.66405 nF
 1.4331 MV/m {Add Q6 and Q7. If the sum is not equal to the
Q 0.76132 x 10 6 charge Q5 of 1.1096 μC, then there is an error
D4  4   25.3773 μC/m 2
A4 300 x 10  4 somewhere.
{Add V2, V3, and V4, If the sum is not equal to the Q6  Q7
total voltage V of 700 V, then there is an error  0.7895245 0.3200756
somewhere.  1.1096 μC
V2  V3  V4
This confirmed that the calculations are correct. This
 130.2827  139.8149  429.93 exercise is not required as part of the solution.}
 700.0276 V {Add V5 and V6. If the sum is not equal to the charge
This confirmed that the calculations are correct. This V of 700 V, then there is an error somewhere.
exercise is not required as part of the solution.}
Set 3: Polyethylene, PVC, and Vacuum C5 is in series

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

V5  V6
3. The switch Sw1 in Fig. Q7.2 is switched on at
 217.9533  482.0052
t  0 . The voltage across the capacitor at t  0 is
 699.9585 V 200 V. Suppose E  0 V , C  15 F , and
This confirmed that the calculations are correct. This
R1  0.2 M .
exercise is not required as part of the solution.} (a) Drive expressions for vc, ic, i1 and vr1.
{Add Q1, Q2, and Q5. If the sum is not equal to the (b) Group the expression for vc into zero state
total charge Q of 2.0777 μC, then there is an error response, zero input response, transient response,
somewhere. and steady state response if possible.
Q1  Q2  Q5 (c) Determine the time constant.
(d) Sketch the graphs of vc, ic, i1 and vr1 against time t.
 0.206717  0.76132  1.1096 4. The switch Sw1 in Fig. Q7.2 is switched on at
 2.0776 μC t  0 . The voltage across the capacitor at t  0 is
This confirmed that the calculations are correct. This 300 V. Suppose E  700 V , C  30 F , and
exercise is not required as part of the solution.} R1  0.5 M .
{Warning: There will not be adequate time in an (a) Drive expressions for vc, ic, i1 and vr1.
examination for these types of checks. Do not do (b) Group the expression for vc into zero state
response, zero input response, transient response,
these checkings in an examination. Try to avoid and steady state response if possible.
errors.} (c) Determine the time constant.
Lessons: (d) Sketch the graphs of vc, ic, i1 and vr1 against time t.
Capcitors in parallel have equal voltage across them 5. The switch Sw2 in Fig. Q7.5 is switched on at
but share the charge. t  0 . The voltage across the capacitor at t  0 is 85
Capacitors in series have equal charge but share the V. Suppose C  150 F and R2  150 k .
voltage. (a) Drive expressions for vc, ic, i2, and vr2.
(b) Group the expression for vc into zero state
Assignment 7.4 response, zero input response, transient response,
Write short note on variable capacitors and their and steady state response if possible.
applications. (c) Determine the time constant.
(d) Sketch the graphs of vc, ic, i2, and vr2 against time t.
7.7 Exercises 6. The voltage of Fig. Q7.6(a) is applied to a series
Assume that leakage current is negligible. circuit of 2 Ω resistor and 300 μF capacitor of Fig.
1. What do you understand by the followings? (a) 7.17. Assume that the initial state of the capacitor is
Capacitance (b) Zero state response (c) Zero input vc (t  0)  2 V .
response (d) Transient response (e) Steady state (a) Derive expressions for the voltage across and the
response current through the capacitor.
2. The switch Sw1 in Fig. Q7.2 is switched on at (b) Sketch the graph of the voltage across the
t  0 . The voltage across the capacitor at t  0 is 0 capacitor and the current through the capacitor
V. Suppose E  600 V , C  20 F , and against time.
(c) Determine the values of the voltage across the
R1  0.1 M .
capacitor at time t = 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, and 3.5
(a) Drive expressions for vc, ic, i1 and vr1. milli-seconds.
(b) Group the expression for vc into zero state (d) Determine the values of the current through the
response, zero input response, transient response, capacitor at time t = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, and 3.5
and steady state response if possible. milli-seconds.
(c) Determine the time constant.
(d) Sketch the graphs of vc, ic, i1 and vr1 against time t.

Fig. Q7.5 Discharging a Capacitor

Fig. Q7.2 Charging A capacitor

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

confirm your expectation.

12. The equivalent capacitance of two capacitors C1
and C2 connected in series is 8 μF. Suppose C1 is 12
μF. Calculate
(a) C2
(b) the equivalent resistance of the parallel
Fig. Q7.6(a) Voltage supply to Fig. Q7.6(b) connection of C1 and C2.
13. Three capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are connected in
parallel across a 48 V. C3 is 3 μF, the charge on C1 is
Q1=40 μC, and the energy stored in C2 is W2 = 524
μJ. Calculate
(a) C1, C2, and the equivalent capacitance
(b). the total charge on the three capacitors.
14. Determine the equivalent Capacitance between
Fig. Q7.6(b) RC series circuit terminals M and N in Fig. Q7.14.

7. The voltage across a 2 μF capacitor is 400 V and

the distance between the parallel plates is d  3 mm .
The dielectric material is glass with relative
permittivity of 6.0. Determine
(a) the charge Q,
(b) the energy stored in the capacitor,
(c) the cross-sectional area of the plates,
(d) the Electric field intensity, and
(e) the Electric flux density.
8. A DC Voltage supply VT (60 V), C1 (2 μF), and C2
(5 μF) are connected in series. Calculate the voltages
V1 and V2 across C1 and C2 respectivelyusing voltage
divide ratio. Fig. Q7.14 A network of capacitors
9. A DC Voltagesupply A DC Voltage supply V (72
V), C1 (4 μF), and C2 (8 μF) are connected in parallel. 15. A multi-plate capacitor is made of 25 plates
Calculate separated by insulating oil with 0.2 mm thickness and
(a) the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor Ce relative permittivity of 3. Each plate has a cross-
(b) the charge QT on the equivalent capacitor sectional area of 400 cm2. 200V is maintained across
(c) Charges Q1 and Q2 on C1 and C2 respectively the capacitor. Calculate
using charge divide ratio. (a) the capacitance of the capacitor
10. Three capacitors C1 (24 μF), C2 (12 μF), and C3 (8 (b) the charge Q on the plates
μF) are connected in series and charge Q (48 μC) is (c) the energy stored in the capacitor.
on each capacitor. Determine (d) the Electric field intensity
(a) The voltage V1, V2, and V3 across the capacitors (e) the Electric flux density.
C1, C2 and C3 respectively. 16. A composite-dielectric capacitor has three
(b) The supply voltage. dielectric materials with corresponding relative
(c) The equivalent capacitance Ce. permittivity’s as shown in Fig. Q7.16. The separation
(d) The energy stored in each of C1, C2, C3 and Ce. distance between the plates is 0.6 mm. The Rubber
(e) Should the energy stored in Ce be equal to the and the Bakelite are 0.15 mm and 0.20 mm thick
sum of the energy stored in C1, C2 and C3? What is respectively. Each of the two plates has a cross-
your expectation? Use your answers in (d) to confirm sectional area of 400 cm2. 350V is maintained across
your expectation. the capacitor. Calculate
11. Four capacitors C1 (2 μF), C2 (4 μF), C3 (6 μF), (a) the capacitance of the capacitor
and C4 (8 μF) are connected in parallel across a 72V (b) the charge Q on the plates
supply. Determine (c) the energy stored in the capacitor.
(a) The charges Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 on the capacitors (d) the Electric field intensity in the air, the Rubber,
C1, C2, C3, and C4. Bakelite, and the Paper Dielectric materials
(b) The equivalent capacitance Ce. (e) the Electric flux density in the air, the Rubber,
(c) The charge on the equivalent capacitance Ce. Bakelite, and the Paper Dielectric materials
(d) The energy stored in each of C1, C2, C3, C4 and Ce.
(e) Should the energy stored in Ce be equal to the
sum of the energy stored in C1, C2, C3, and C4? What
is your expectation? Use your answers in (d) to

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

Fig. Q7.17 A Composite-dielectric capacitor

18. A composite-dielectric capacitor has four
dielectric materials with corresponding relative
permittivity’s as shown in Fig. Q7.18. The separation
distance d between the plates is 0.6 mm. The Teflon
is 0.25 mm thick. The PVC, the Epoxy, and the
Nylon have cross-sectional areas of 400 cm2, 200 cm2,
Fig. Q7.16 A Composite-dielectric capacitor and 300 cm2 respectively. 480 V is maintained across
the capacitor. Calculate
17. A composite-dielectric capacitor has three (a) capacitance of the capacitor
dielectric materials with corresponding relative (b) the charge Q on the plates
permittivity’s as shown in Fig. Q7.17. The separation (c) the energy stored in the composite-dielectric
distance d between the plates is 0.2 mm. The Glass, capacitor.
the Mica and the Porcelain have cross-sectional areas (d) the Electric field intensity and the Electric flux
of 350 cm2 400 cm2 and 450 cm2 respectively. 720 V density in the Air, the Epoxy, Nylon, Teflon,
is maintained across the capacitor. Calculate Polyethylene, Vacuum, and PVC dielectric materials .
(a) the total cross-sectional area of the plates.
(b) capacitance of the capacitor
(c) the charge Q on the plates
(d) the energy stored in the capacitor.
(e) the Electric field intensity in the Glass, the Mica
and the Porcelain materials
(f) the Electric flux density in the Glass, the Mica and
the Porcelain materials

Fig. Q7.18 A Composite-dielectric capacitor

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 Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

REFERENCES

[1] Zubair A. R. and Ahmed Y. K. (2019). Engineering Education: Computer-Aided Engineering with MATLAB;
Discrete Wavelet Transform as a Case Study. International Journal of Computer Applications Vol. 182. No. 46: 6-17.

[2] Zubair A. R. and Folorunso S. S. (2020). Education during COVID-19 lockdown and Social Distancing:
Programmable Teaching Aid for Amplitude Modulation Theory as a Case Study. International Journal of Computer
Applications, Vol. 175. No. 33: 11-29.

[3] E. Hughes, Electrical and Electronic Technology, Tenth Edition, Revised by J. Hiley, K. Brown and I. M. S.
Hughes, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2008.

[4] ‘Electrical Symbols & Electronic Symbols’ retrieved on 19th April, 2018 from
https://www.rapidtables.com/electric/electrical_symbols.html

[5] ‘Maxwell Equations’ retrieved on 19th April, 2018 from

https://sites.google.com/site/nearcommunications/james-clerk-maxwell

[6] ‘Differential and Integral forms of Maxwel Equations’ retrieved on 19th April, 2018 from
https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/256739/what-are-the-differences-between-the-differential-and-
integral-forms-of-e-g-ma/256748

[7] Electrical and Electronic Dictionary

[8] B. L. Theraja and A. K. Theraja, A Text Book of Basic Electrical Engineering, First Multicolour Edition, Revised
by S. G. Tarnekar, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company LTD, 2005.

[9] https://www.sanfoundry.com/1000-basic-electrical-engineering-questions-answers/

[10] ‘Boundless Physics’ retrieved on 10th June, 2020 from http://oer2go.org/mods/en-

boundless/www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks/boundless-physics-textbook/electric-potential-and-electric-field-
18/capacitors-and-dielectrics-142/parallel-plate-capacitor-512-11285/images/parallel-plate-capacitor/index.html

[11] ‘Magnetic Lines of Force’ retrieved on 10th June, 2020 from https://i.stack.imgur.com/BAcbs.jpg

[12] ‘Basic Electrical Engineering, Part 5: Magnetic Materials’ retrieved on 10th June, 2020 from
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[13] https://electricalacademia.com/electrical-mcqs/magnetism-electromagnetism-mcqs-answers/

[14] Ozan Keysan, ‘EE-568 Selected Topics in Electrical Machines’ retrieved on 10th June, 2020 from
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[15] ‘Voltage Regulation of Transformer at Unity, Lagging, and Leading Power Factor’ retrieved on 19th September,
2021 from https://electricalacademia.com/transformer/voltage-regulation-transformer-unity-lagging-leading-power-
factor/
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Towards Understanding and Expertise in Applied Electricity: Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering made simple

About the Author

Dr. A. R. Zubair obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria and his Ph.D from the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
where he is currently a lecturer. His areas of research include Digital Signal Processing, Engineering
in Medicine and Renewable energy. He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (MIEEE) and Nigerian Society of Engineers (MNSE). He is registered as an Engineer
with the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN).

Dr. A. R. Zubair has teaching experience in various Electrical and Electronic Engineering courses
which include Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Network Analysis, Network
Synthesis, Electronic Devices and Systems, Digital Electronic, Electronic Communication, Signal
Processing, Digital Signal Processing (DSP), Engineering Mathematics, Computer Programming,
Control Engineering and Biomedical Engineering. He has taught students in the South Western, the
Eastern and the Northern parts of Nigeria. He is a teacher without borders or a teacher across borders.

Links for Dr. A. R. Zubair

http://tech.ui.edu.ng/ARZubair
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdul_Rasak_Zubair2/contributions
https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0DnT4xUAAAAJ&hl=en&citsig=AMD79oqiaZaHL
ok2BS4ZNLy-GpRhsE2d5Q
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6853-4314

Feedback for the author from readers are welcome at

[email protected] or
[email protected] .

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