DISTORTION
If we lived on a flat earth there would be no need for a course on map projections. As we live on
an ellipsoidal earth and there is no way that the curved surface of the earth can be portrayed on a
flat sheet of paper without introducing some distortions.
The distortion of the surface geometry is a necessary consequence of changing the media's shape,
but often one or several geometric properties can be preserved to a great extent. Specific map
projections are chosen to minimize the statistical properties of a distortion of particular interest;
this can be improved if there are specific areas of interest on a map.
No map projection transformation can maintain scale everywhere. Angles, areas, distances and
directions will be altered in the planar representation of the ellipsoidal earth. The distortions
created during the map projection transformation may be analyzed using a measure of distortion.
4.1 General Expression for Distortion
It is assumed that there is a functional relationship
𝑋 = 𝑓(φ, λ); 𝑌 = 𝑔(φ. λ)
And that these mathematically well behaved functions having functions having derivatives
∂𝑓 ∂𝑓 ∂𝑔 ∂𝑔
𝑑𝑋 = ∂φ
𝑑φ + ∂λ
𝑑λ; 𝑑𝑌 = ∂φ
𝑑φ + ∂λ
𝑑λ
Or 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑓φ𝑑φ + 𝑓λ𝑑λ; 𝑑𝑌 = 𝑔φ𝑑φ + 𝑔λ𝑑λ
The general expression for distortion will be developed using spherical parameters will be found.
An elemental unit of length PP1 on the sphere is mapped onto the plane as P’P1’
Distortion of length is defined as PP1 – P’P1’ and its distortion factor:
; '
𝑃 𝑃1
𝑃𝑃1
= 𝑚𝐴
When ma =1 there is zero length distortion.
2 2 2
[𝑃'𝑃'1] = 𝑑𝑋 + 𝑑𝑌
2 2 2
[𝑃𝑃1] = (𝑅𝑑φ) + (𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ𝑑λ )
Hence
2 2
2 𝑑𝑋 +𝑑𝑌
𝑚𝐴 = 2 2 2 2 2
𝑅 𝑑φ +𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ 𝑑λ
2 2 𝑑λ 2 2 𝑑λ 2
2 (𝑓φ+𝑔φ)+2(𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ) 𝑑φ +(𝑓λ +𝑔λ )( 𝑑φ )
𝑚𝐴 = 2 2 2 𝑑λ 2
𝑅 +𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ ( 𝑑φ )
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ 𝑑λ 𝑑λ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 = 𝑅𝑑φ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ 𝑑φ
𝑑λ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴
𝑑φ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ
2 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 2 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 2
2 (𝑓φ+𝑔φ)+2(𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ +(𝑓λ +𝑔λ )( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ )
𝑚𝐴 = 2 2
𝑅 (1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 )
2 2 2 2
2 (𝑓φ+𝑔φ) 2 2(𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ) (𝑓λ +𝑔λ ) 2
𝑚𝐴 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 + 2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
𝑅 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ
2 2 2 2 2
𝑚𝐴 = 𝑚1𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 + 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 + 𝑚2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 (4. 1)
where:
2 2
2 (𝑓φ+𝑔φ)
𝑚1 = 2
𝑅
2(𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ)
𝑝= 2
𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ
2 2
2 (𝑓λ +𝑔λ )
𝑚2 = 2 2
𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ
where m1 and m2 represents values of extreme distortion factor of length.
4.1.1 Azimuths with minimum and maximum distortion in length
To determine the azimuth of extreme distortions, take the first derivative and equate to 0 and solve for
AE.
2
𝑑(𝑚𝐴) 2 2
𝑑𝐴
=− 𝑚1𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝐴𝐸 + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴𝐸 + 𝑚2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝐴𝐸 = 0
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝐴𝐸 (𝑚2 − 𝑚1) + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴𝐸 = 0
𝑃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝐴𝐸 = 2 2
𝑚1−𝑚2
Two possible solutions are obtained, AE, and AE + 90. To determine which is maximum and minimum,
take the second derivative and substitute the extrema. If the value is positive it is minimum, if negative it
is maximum.
Azimuth of maximum distortion
2 2
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴 (𝑚1 − 𝑚2) < 0∴𝑚𝑎𝑥
Azimuth of minimum distortion
2 2
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴 (𝑚1 − 𝑚2) > 0∴𝑚𝑖𝑛
4.1.2 Distortion in Azimuth
'
180 − 𝐴 = μ𝑚 − μ𝑠
𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑚 −𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑠
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (180 − 𝐴') = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑠
𝑑λ
𝑑𝑌 𝑔φ𝑑φ+𝑔φ𝑑λ 𝑔φ+𝑔λ 𝑑φ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑠 = 𝑑𝑋
= 𝑓φ𝑑φ+𝑓φ𝑑λ
= 𝑑λ
𝑓φ+𝑓λ 𝑑φ
𝑔φ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 +𝑔λ𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑠 = 𝑓φ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 +𝑓λ𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
Taking an element of length along the meridian, with
𝑑𝑌 𝑔φ𝑑φ+𝑔λ𝑑λ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑚 = ( 𝑑𝑋 ) = 𝑓φ𝑑φ+𝑓λ𝑑λ
𝑚
But for λ constant, dλ =0 hence
𝑔φ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑚 = 𝑓φ
To get distortion in angle ω’-ω, where ω = A2-A1, we compute ω’=, A’2 - A’1 in the mapping plane.
The angular distortion is then
' ' ' ' '
ω − ω = (𝐴2 − 𝐴1) − (𝐴2 − 𝐴1) = (𝐴2 − 𝐴2) − (𝐴1 − 𝐴1)
Distortion between meridian and parallel is equal to distortion in azimuth, Ap=90°. A’ is computed by
letting dϕ = 0 substituting μs with μp
𝑔φ𝑑φ+𝑔φ𝑑λ 𝑔λ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑝 = 𝑓φ𝑑φ+𝑓φ𝑑λ
= 𝑓λ
Hence
𝑔φ 𝑔
𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑚 −𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑝 − 𝑓λ 𝑓λ𝑔φ−𝑓φ𝑔λ
' 𝑓φ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (180 − 𝐴𝑝) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛 μ𝑝
= 𝑔φ
λ
𝑔λ = 𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ
1+ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑓
φ λ
As
' 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (180 − 𝐴𝑝) = '
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴𝑝−90)
' 𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴𝑝 − 90) = 𝑓λ𝑔φ−𝑓φ𝑔λ
4.1.3 Distortion in area
Elemental area:
𝑑Σ = 𝑑𝑠1∙𝑑𝑠2
' ' ' '
𝑑Σ = 𝑑𝑠1∙𝑑𝑠2∙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑝
'
Distortion in area: 𝑑Σ − 𝑑Σ
Area distortion factor:
' ' ' ' '
𝑑Σ' 𝑑𝑠1∙𝑑𝑠2∙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑝 𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠2 ' '
𝑑Σ
= 𝑑𝑠1∙𝑑𝑠2
= 𝑑𝑠1
∙ 𝑑𝑠1
∙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑚1∙𝑚2∙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑝
m1 and m2 represents maximum and minimum distortion factors
then,
' 𝑓λ𝑔φ−𝑓φ𝑔λ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑝 =
2 2
(𝑓λ𝑔φ−𝑓φ𝑔λ) +(𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ)
2 2 2 2
𝑑Σ' 𝑓φ+𝑔φ 𝑓λ +𝑔λ 𝑓λ𝑔φ−𝑓φ𝑔λ
𝑑Σ
= 2 ∙ 2 2 ∙
𝑅 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ (𝑓λ𝑔φ−𝑓φ𝑔λ) +(𝑓φ𝑓λ+𝑔φ𝑔λ)
2 2
𝑑Σ' |𝑓λ𝑔φ−𝑓φ𝑔λ|
𝑑Σ
= 2
𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 φ
4.2 Simplified Expressions for distortion.
The simplified formulas for distortions are well suited to those projections of which images of meridians
and parallels remain perpendicular.In other words those projections for which p=0 for which A1 =0 and
A2=90°. The meridians and parallels are then the directions of extreme scale factors.
Coordinate axes chosen in the directions of extreme distortion in length.
If dX/dx and dY/dy represents maximum and minimum distortion factors, then
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌
𝑎= 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑑𝑦
represents distortion factors in the directions of extremes .
𝑑𝑋 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑌 = 𝑏 𝑑𝑦
The equation of the circle is:
2 2 2
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑟
Equation of the ellipse
2 2
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌 2
2 + 2 = 𝑑𝑟
𝑎 𝑏
Or
2 2
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌
2 2 + 2 2 =1 (𝑇𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥)
𝑎 𝑑𝑟 𝑏 𝑑𝑟
4.2.1 Length distortion factor
2 2 2 2
(𝑃𝑃1) = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑟
Since
𝑑𝑋 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑌 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 α 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α
' 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(𝑃'𝑃1) = 𝑑𝑋 + 𝑑𝑌 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α 𝑑𝑟
Thus
' 2
2 𝑃'𝑃1 2 2 2
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α 𝑑𝑟 +𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α 𝑑𝑟
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
𝑚α = ( 𝑃𝑃1
) = 2 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α
𝑑𝑟
Where:
ɑ= bearing measured from the x axis, which is the direction of extreme distortion
The azimuth of PP1 is A + ɑ.
4.2.2Area distortion factor
The area of differentially small circle
2
𝑑Σ = π𝑑𝑟
The area of differentially small ellipse
2
𝑑Σ' = 𝑎𝑏π𝑑𝑟
Hence
2
𝑑Σ' 𝑎𝑏π𝑑𝑟
𝑑Σ
= 2 = 𝑎𝑏
π𝑑𝑟
4.2.3 Distortion in bearing
𝑑𝑦 ' 𝑑𝑌 𝑏 𝑑𝑦 𝑏
𝑡𝑎𝑛 α = 𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 α = 𝑑𝑋
= 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛 α
'
Therefore distortion in bearing is α − α.
Extreme distortion in bearing and azimuth:
𝑏−𝑎
𝑏+𝑎
