Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 1 of 12

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems
2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)
2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)
2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)
2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 2 of 12

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems
2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)
1. The difference between direction indicated by a magnetic compass not
installed in an airplane and one installed in an airplane is called compass
deviation.
a. Magnetic fields produced by metals and electrical accessories in an
airplane disturb the compass needle.
b. The compass deviation usually varies for different headings of the
same aircraft.

2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)

2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)
2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 3 of 12

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems
2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)
2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)
1. Airspeed indicators have several color-coded markings.
a. The white arc is the flap operating range.
1) The lower limit is the power-off stalling speed or the minimum
steady flight speed with wing flaps and landing gear in the
landing position (V S0 ).
2) The upper limit is the maximum flap extended speed (V FE ).
b. The green arc is the normal operating range.
1) The lower limit is the power-off stalling speed with the wing
flaps up and landing gear retracted (V S1 ).
2) The upper limit is the maximum structural cruising speed for
normal operation (V NO ).
c. The yellow arc is the range of airspeed that is safe in smooth air
only.
1) It is known as the caution range.
d. The red line is the speed that should never be exceeded (V ).
NE
1) Design limit load factors could be exceeded with airspeeds in
excess of V NE from a variety of phenomena.

2. The most important airspeed limitation which is not color-coded is the

maneuvering speed (V A ).
a. The maneuvering speed is the maximum speed at which abrupt full
deflection of aircraft controls can be made without causing
structural damage.
b. It is the maximum speed for flight in turbulent air.
3. The maximum landing gear extended speed (V ) is not color coded.
LE
a. It is usually placarded and is included in the airplane's flight manual.

4. Types of airspeed
a. Indicated airspeed (IAS) is read directly off the airspeed indicator.
b. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is IAS corrected for installation and
instrument error.
c. True airspeed (TAS) is CAS corrected for pressure altitude and
nonstandard temperature.

5. The V-G diagram (velocity versus "G" loads) shows the flight operating

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 4 of 12

strength of an airplane.
a. In the diagram below, load factor is on the vertical axis with airspeed
on the horizontal axis.
b. The lines of maximum lift capability (dashed lines) are the first items
of importance on the V-G diagram.
1) The subject airplane in the diagram on the opposite page is
capable of developing no more than one positive "G" at 64 mph,
which is the wings-level stall speed of the airplane.
2) The maximum load factor increases dramatically with airspeed.
The maximum positive lift capability of this airplane is 2 "G" at
96 mph, 3 "G" at 116 mph, 3.8 "G" at 126 mph, etc.
a) These are the "coordinates" of points on the curved line up
to point C.
3) Any load factor above this dashed line is unavailable
aerodynamically. That is, the subject airplane cannot fly above
the line of maximum lift capability (it will stall).
c. Point C is the intersection of the positive limit load factor (line CDE)
and the line of maximum positive lift capability (dashed line up to
point C).
1) The airspeed at this point is the minimum airspeed at which the
limit load can be developed aerodynamically.
2) Any airspeed greater than point C provides a positive lift
capability sufficient to damage the airplane.
a) Any airspeed less than point C does not provide positive lift
capability sufficient to cause damage from excessive flight
loads.
3) The usual term given to the speed at point C is the design
maneuvering speed (V A ).
d. The limit airspeed V is a design reference point for the airplane.
NE
The subject airplane is limited to 196 mph (line EF).
1) If flight is attempted beyond the limit airspeed, structural
damage or structural failure may result from a variety of
phenomena.
e. Thus, the airplane in flight is limited to a regime of airspeeds and G's
which do not exceed
1) The limit (or red-line) speed (line EF)
2) Normal stall speed (line AJ)
3) The positive and negative limit load factors (lines CDE and IHG)
4) The maximum lift capability (dashed lines up to C, down to I)
f. A caution range is indicated between points D, E, F, and G. Within
this range, certain factors must be considered to maintain flight in
the envelope.
1) Line DG represents the maximum structural cruising speed
(V NO ).

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 5 of 12

2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)

2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)
Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems
2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)
2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)
2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)
1. The turn coordinator and the turn-and-slip indicator are usually electric-

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 6 of 12

driven instruments. Each instrument has an inclinometer (i.e., ball).

a. The turn coordinator indicates roll rate, rate of turn, and
coordination.
b. The turn-and-slip indicator indicates rate of turn and coordination.

2. The advantage of having an electric turn coordinator (or turn-and-slip

indicator) is to provide bank information in case the vacuum-driven
attitude indicator and heading indicator fail.
2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems
2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)
2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)
2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 7 of 12

2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)

1. As altitude increases, the density (weight) of air entering the carburetor
decreases.
a. If no adjustment is made, the amount of fuel remains constant and
the fuel/air ratio (mixture) becomes excessively rich.
b. Thus, the pilot adjusts the fuel flow with the mixture control to
maintain the proper fuel/air ratio at all altitudes.

2. The fuel/air ratio, by definition, is the ratio between the weight of fuel
and the weight of air entering the cylinder.
a. The best power mixture refers to the fuel/air ratio that will provide
the most power at any given power setting.

3. Spark plug fouling results from operating at high altitudes with an

excessively rich mixture due to the below-normal temperatures in the
combustion chambers.
4. In gas turbine (as well as reciprocating) engines, as temperature
increases and air density decreases, thrust decreases.
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems
2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)
2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 8 of 12

2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)

2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
1. Carburetor heat enriches the fuel/air mixture because warm air is less
dense than cold air.
2. Applying carburetor heat decreases engine output and increases
operating temperature due to the warmer, less dense air entering the
carburetor.
a. Leaving the carburetor heat on during takeoff will increase the
ground roll.

2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)

2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems
2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 9 of 12

2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)

2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)
2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
1. Detonation occurs in a reciprocating aircraft engine when the unburned
fuel/air charge in the cylinders is subjected to instantaneous
combustion.
2. Detonation is usually caused by using a lower-than-specified grade of
aviation fuel and too lean a mixture or by excessive engine temperature
caused by high-power settings.
3. Preignition is the uncontrolled firing of the fuel/air charge in advance of
the normal spark ignition.
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 10 of 12

2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)

2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)
2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)
2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
1. Dual ignition systems provide improved combustion of the fuel/air
mixture.
2. Aircraft magnetos generate their own electricity by self-contained
magnets.
3. An engine that continues to run after the ignition switch has been turned
off probably has a broken or disconnected ground wire between the
magneto and the ignition switch.
a. Thus, a potentially dangerous situation exists because the engine
could accidentally start if the propeller is moved with fuel in the
cylinder.

4. A good practice before shutdown is to idle the engine and momentarily

turn the ignition off.
5. Rapid opening and closing of the throttle may cause detuning of engine
crankshaft counterweights (throwing the crankshaft out of balance).
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:
Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 11 of 12

2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)

2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)
2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)
2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
1. Aircraft engines are largely cooled by the flow of oil through the
lubrication system.
2. An excessively low oil level will prevent the oil from cooling adequately
and result in an abnormally high engine oil temperature.
3. You should inspect aircraft exhaust manifold-type heating systems on a
regular basis to minimize the possibility of cracks or other problems
which would permit exhaust gases to leak into the cockpit.
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

Commercial Pilot
Chapter Two:

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024
Chapter Two: Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems Page 12 of 12

Airplanes Instruments, Engines, and Systems

2.1 MAGNETIC COMPASS (Question 1)
2.2 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (Questions 2-9)
2.3 TURN COORDINATOR/TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR (Questions 10-11)
2.4 FUEL/AIR MIXTURE (Questions 12-21)
2.5 CARBURETOR HEAT (Questions 22-24)
2.6 DETONATION AND PREIGNITION (Questions 25-28)
2.7 AIRPLANE IGNITION SYSTEMS (Questions 29-33)
2.8 ENGINE COOLING (Questions 34-36)
2.9 AIRPLANE PROPELLERS (Questions 37-45)
1. Propeller efficiency is the ratio of thrust horsepower to brake horsepower.
2. A fixed-pitch propeller can be most efficient only at a specified
combination of airspeed and RPM.
3. The propeller's geometric pitch varies along the propeller blade because
the propeller tip goes through the air faster than the section of propeller
near the hub.
a. This pitch variation permits a relatively constant angle of attack
along the blade's length when in cruising flight.

4. A constant-speed (controllable-pitch) propeller adjusts the pitch angle of

the propeller blade so that the engine is maintained at a selected RPM.
5. For takeoff, to develop maximum power and thrust, you should use a
small angle of attack and high RPM on a controllable-pitch (constant-
speed) propeller.
6. To establish climb power after takeoff in an airplane equipped with a
constant-speed propeller, you should first decrease manifold pressure
and then decrease RPM. When the propeller control is moved to reduce
the RPM, the propeller blade angle increases.
a. When increasing power, increase RPM first; then increase manifold
pressure to avoid placing undue stress on the engine.

7. Spiraling slipstream describes the propeller blade forcing air rearward in

a spiraling clockwise direction around the fuselage when the propeller
rotates through the air in a clockwise direction as viewed from the rear.
a. As a result, the airplane yaws left around the vertical axis.
b. Also, the airplane rolls right around the longitudinal axis.

Co pyrightã 2001 Gleim Publicatio ns, I nc.

file:///C:/Users/reyes/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh4FA7.htm 11/11/2024