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‘THE INFIDEL WITHIN’
HUMAYUN ANSARI
1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Glossary xi
Preface to the New Edition xvii
1. Is There a British Muslim Identity? 1
The context 2
The issues 6
Muslim identity and ‘native’ British converts to Islam 15
Young British Muslims 17
PART I
ARRIVING, 1800–1945
2. Muslim Migration and Settlement in Britain before 1945 27
Early Muslim migration to Britain: visitors, sailors and settlers 29
Imperial connections 31
Seafaring sojourners 38
Muslim migration to Britain, 1914–45 44
Fluctuating fortunes 44
New opportunities 50
3. Muslim Engagement with British Society up to the First
World War 57
Contact, channels of communication and early arrivals in Britain 58
Carving out a niche: interaction during the early nineteenth century 63
Changing British attitudes towards Muslims 65
Measures to administer relief to ‘deserving cases’ 71
Muslim life in late Victorian Britain 74
Encounters with the opposite sex 80
v
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CONTENTS
The class factor: the case of the Munshi and the Court 83
Perfidious Turks and despotic Orientals 87
Quilliam’s Liverpool Muslim congregation 90
Pan-Islam and the FirstWorldWar 92
4. ‘Being Muslim’ in Early Twentieth-Century Britain 101
Social engagement during the interwar years 102
Relations in the workplace 119
Demanding the rights of citizenship 128
5. ‘Weaving the Cultural Strands Together’: Institutionalising
Islam in Early Twentieth-Century Britain 133
Quilliam and the Liverpool Mosque and Institute 134
The Woking Mosque and the Muslim Mission 138
Process of institutionalisation among the Muslim communities
of Cardiff and South Shields 148
Sheikh Abdullah Ali al-Hakimi and the Alawi tariqa 150
PART II
STAYING—1945 ONWARDS
6. Muslim Migration to Britain after the Second World War 161
Phases of postwar migration 162
Chain migration and the role of pioneers 164
‘Push’ factors 169
The case of postwarYemeni settlers 172
Government intervention and immigration controls 174
The 1970s onwards 176
7. Contours of Muslim Life in Britain Since 1945 183
The size of the British Muslim population 185
Geographical distribution 188
Households and housing 194
Demographic characteristics: age and gender distribution 196
Education, qualifications and skills background 198
Jobs: employment patterns 202
Problems of discrimination 214
8. Assimilation, Integration, Accommodation: Aspects
of Muslim Engagement with British Society Since 1945 217
Patterns and processes of interaction 218
vi
CONTENTS
The context of majority–minority encounters 219
Degrees of British Muslim assimilation 226
The generation gap: British Muslims and youth culture 229
Segregated leisure and sport? 236
Matters of law 238
Muslim political engagement in Britain 246
9. Muslim Women and Families in Britain 265
The impact of migration 266
Muslim women and family relationships 271
Migration, Muslim women and waged work 278
Changing dynamics in British Muslim families 288
Muslim women resist sources of oppression 294
The changing position of Muslim women in British society 305
10. British Muslims and Education: Issues and Prospects 311
Early history 312
Muslims and ‘under performance’ in education 315
Multicultural education and Muslims—1970 to the mid-1980s 324
Muslim education—from the mid-1980s to 2001 329
The struggle for voluntary-aided Muslim schools 336
Muslim education in the 1990s 345
11. The Evolution of Muslim Organisation in Britain Since the
Second World War 351
Early history 352
Laying the foundation stones: Britain’s network of mosques and
Muslim organisation 354
The evolution of Sufi orders in Britain 367
Umbrella organisations from the 1980s onwards 372
Organisation of welfare, social and cultural services 378
Muslim youth organisation 381
Organising Muslim women 387
Institutionalisation of Muslim minority sects in Britain: the Ismailis 393
12. Conclusion: British Muslim Identities 403
Notes 423
Bibliography 495
Acknowledgements 515
Index 517
vii
LIST OF MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
Maps
Map: Muslim migration to Britain 184
Map: Muslim population in Britain by regions and cities 189
Diagrams
Countries of origin of the Muslim communities in Britain, late
1990s 185
Working-age adults in fulltime work, by religion 203
The economically active South Asian population, by religion 204
Asylum in Britain: total applications, 2001 212
Asylum in Britain: applications from the top ten nationalities,
2001: success and failure 213
ix
GLOSSARY
xi
GLOSSARY
Eid al-Fitr Feast marking the end of Ramadan (the Muslim
month of fasting)
farman Imam’s edict
fatwa expert advice of a jurist on a specific legal
problem
fez brimless male headcovering, usually red
fiqh technical juristic elaboration of detailed content
gaddi position of pir, literally seat upon which he sits
ghee clarified butter
Hadith Traditions of the Prophet Muhammad
hajj pilgrimage, annually to Mecca and Medina
halal permitted or sanctioned within Islam
haram prohibited or unsanctioned within Islam
haya modesty
hijab headscarf
hutbe sermon
ibadah worship
idda period of three months in which the paternity of
an unborn child can be determined
ijma consensus of opinion
ijtema large congregation
ijtihad the exercise of human reason
ikhtilaf differences of opinion in respect of fiqh (Islamic
legal science)
imam religious leader, one who leads prayers in the
mosque; title by which the Ismaili leader, the Aga
Khan, is known
istihsan method of reasoning employed in the absence of
textual precedent; to make a particular interpre-
tation of the law as a result of one’s own
deliberation
istislah reasoning based on search for the common good
izzat honour
jalabiyya headcovering
jalsa large congregation
jamaat-khana Ismaili assembly and prayer hall
jihad struggle, strenuous effort; the greater jihad is
xii
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GLOSSARY
considered to be the struggle to overcome inner
personal weaknesses while the armed struggle or
‘holy war’ is the lesser jihad
kafir one who is ungrateful to God, unbeliever
kamadia mukhi’s deputy
khilafah global Islamic state
khula a legal process under Islamic law which allows
women to seek divorce independently of their
husband’s wishes
Koola-Izzat hat of honour
kufr system of unbelief
lascar maritime worker
lillah for God
madrassa religious school
mahr dower
mahrem a close relative with whom marriage is prohibited
masjid mosque
Milad-i Nabi the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday
Mirza a prefix adopted by scribes, secretaries and other
educated men; as a suffix it denoted ‘prince’
moulvi title used by an alim
muallam Muslim high priest
muballighin voluntary preachers
mudaraba a contract of joint partnership
muezzin one who gives a call to a congregational prayer
mufti specialist on Islamic law
mujahideen those who wage jihad, holy warriors
mukhi official of the Ismaili jamaat-khana
(female: mukhiani)
mullah title often used by South Asian Muslims for a
Muslim religious man, often a leader
munshi clerical official
muqaddam literally one who commands a troop or a ship;
similar to serang
murabaha instalment sale contract
murid disciple, follower of a Sufi pir
murshid spiritual guide
xiii
GLOSSARY
naat devotional poem
nashids a form of vocal music in praise of God
Nawab title for Indian Muslim prince or noble
pir spiritual guide, often a Sufi leader
purdah female seclusion
qawwali rhythmic group (usually devotional) singing
qiyas reasoning by analogy, analogical deduction
Quran Islam’s Holy Book, revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad
qurbani sacrifice
Ramadan Muslim month of fasting
sadaqah religious voluntary alms or donation
sajjada-nashin literally ‘one who sits on the carpet’, head of pir
family
salah prayer
salam praising Muhammad by Barelwis
serang (ghat serang) labour agent, money lender and lodging-house
keeper rolled into one
Sharia the path to be followed; Islamic law
Shia Those belonging to the Party of Ali; general name
for all those Muslims who regard Ali, son-in-law
and cousin of the Prophet Muhammad, and his
descendants, as the only legitimate leaders of the
Muslim community after Muhammad’s death
silsila Sufi order
Sufism (Sufi) Islamic mysticism
Sunna ‘the trodden path’; the practice and example of
the Prophet Muhammad which Muslims should
follow in order to live a correct life
Sunni literally ‘one who follows the trodden path’; the
majority community within Islam
tabligh preaching
talaq divorce
taqwa piety
tariqa Sufi (Muslim mystic) order
tawil allegorical interpretation
tawiz amulets
xiv
GLOSSARY
topi hat, head covering
ulama plural of alim
umma world-wide community of Muslims
urs annual commemoration of the death of a Sufi
saint or pir, often the occasion for a pilgrimage to
his tomb
zahir superficial, exoteric meaning
zakat religious tax
zawiya literally a corner or nook; a centre of social and
religious activity in Sufi Islam
zikr the remembrance of Allah through repetitive rit-
ual chanting of divine names or religious verses
intended to cultivate religious experience in Sufi
circles
xv
PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION
Since this book was first published, life in the UK for Muslims has
grown more precarious: their ‘othering’ has become much more acute.
British Muslims have increasingly come to represent the ultimate
stranger in the British imaginary, their bodies often the site of anti-
Muslim racism and xenophobia. Identified as an ‘outsider inside’ and
marked by name, religion, skin colour, dress and language, they have
been perpetually at risk of stigmatisation.1 The increased mobilisation
of Muslims across transnational space—the so-called Muslim inva-
sion—has only served to entrench the view of Muslims as a dangerous,
socio-cultural threat. Terrorist attacks since 9/11 have undeniably res-
urrected latent stereotypes of Islam as an anachronism, a civilisation
trapped in a time warp, and ‘the Muslims’ as irrational, fanatical, intol-
erant, misogynistic and violent ‘folk devils’, constituting a constant
danger to public order. Against the backdrop of heightened securitisa-
tion, they have been re-framed as a problematic outsider or, even
worse, the enemy within. Being born, bred and raised in Britain has not
guaranteed automatic membership of the British nation. Instead, a
performative belonging has been demanded through articulations and
practices of ‘proper’ political and cultural behaviour.
Since the first edition of this book in 2004, there has been a surge of
interest in the life and experience of Muslims in British society. Published
ahead of the London bombings in July 2005, The InfidelWithin anticipated
a growing socio-political crisis that since then has steadily deepened.
London’s terrorist attacks since 7/7 reignited the debate about the puta-
tively malign presence of Muslims in Britain. Since then, the lives of
xvii
PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION
British Muslims have become increasingly on edge. A high degree of
mutual distrust, resentment and even hostility was stoked between
British Muslims and the majority population, as the former increasingly
came under political, media and policy scrutiny, with a focus on immi-
gration, securitisation, integration and citizenship. Events since 7/7 have
further fed the securitisation narrative, ratcheting up anti-Muslim ten-
sion. In the wake of the 2017 Westminster, Manchester and London
Bridge attacks, shrill calls for internment, Muslim bans, treason charges
and even an end to Islam in Britain were raised.2 The perception that the
British society and state are pitted against an alien, antagonistic religious
minority has intensified in many quarters; in the British imaginary,
Muslims have become the ultimate threatening Other.3 What is the con-
text in which this has happened?
This new preface seeks to scrutinise these shifts by providing a
nuanced assessment of British Muslim experience since the beginning
of the twenty-first century. It looks at changes in the profile of British
Muslims and the resultant impact on the perceptions, attitudes and
behaviours of both Muslims themselves and the wider British popula-
tion. It explores and challenges the dominant discourses on Muslim
identities, and the conceptual shifts surrounding ‘the Muslim commu-
nity’ in the twenty-first century UK.
First, a few updated facts and figures. Since 2001, the Muslim socio-
economic profile has undergone significant changes. According to an
analysis from the Office for National Statistics, in 2014 there were
3,114,992 Muslims in the UK (excluding Northern Ireland), com-
pared with 2.71 million in 2011 and 1.55 million in 2001. With
1,554,022 (a shade under 50%) born overseas, they made up 5.4% of
the population of England and Wales (4.8% in 2011 and 3% in 2001).4
Many Britons have felt that the growth of Britain’s Muslim population
presents a threat to national identity.5 Negative perceptions in wider
society concerning Muslim residential concentration in separate com-
munities have heightened tensions and perpetuated the stigmatisation
of British Muslims. The reality, however, is more complex. On the one
hand, British Muslims have spread out into more mixed areas and
mingled with the rest of the population:6 so while Tower Hamlets’
Muslim population (34.5%) grew 19% over the decade to 2011, that
was far slower than the UK growth of 75%, or even London’s figure of
xviii
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<tb>
XXXII luku.
Vaikka kapteeni Kidd siis oli kaikkea muuta kuin ihailtava sankari,
on hänen maineensa kuitenkin säilynyt halki vuosisatojen
suurempana kuin monen suuripiirteisimmän sissiluonteen, ja hänen
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silmissä. Ja siihen omituiseen, nurinkuriseen seikkaan ovat
epäilemättä antaneet aihetta tarut hänen muka maahan
kätkemistään aarteista, jotka ovat hyväilleet ihmisten kurjaa
kullanhimoa.
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