Unit V: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

1. Properties of fluids: Density or mass density, Specific weight or weight

density, Specific volume, Specific gravity, numerical problems
2. Viscosity: Units of viscosity, Kinematic viscosity, Newton’s Law of viscosity,
Variation of viscosity with temperature, types of fluids
3. Pressure and Its measurement: Fluid pressure at a point, Pascal’s Law,
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
4. Kinematics of Flow: Method of describing fluid motion, Types of fluid flow –
steady and unsteady flows, uniform and non-uniform flows, laminar and
turbulent flows, compressible and incompressible flows, rotational and
irrotational flows, 1D, 2D and 3D flows
5. Kinematics of Flow Cont.…: Rate of flow or discharge, Continuity Equation
Course
on
FCME006: Basics of Mechanical Engineering
Mr. Ankit Bansal
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Netaji Subhas University of Technology
Room No.: 140/VI
Email: [email protected]
Unit I: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Unit V: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
6. Dynamics of fluid flow: Equation of motion, Euler’s Equation of Motion,
Bernoulli’s Equations from Euler’s Equations
7. Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equations: Venturimeter,
Orifice meter, Pitot-tube
9. Numerical problems
 Lecture 33
Text/Reference Books
1. Munson, Bruce Roy, et al. Fluid mechanics. Singapore: Wiley, 2013.
2. Cengel, Yunus A. Fluid mechanics. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2010.
3. White, Frank M. "Fluid mechanics." (2010).
 Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be
approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and
gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with liquid
flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds.
8
INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the
influence of forces.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is Fluid mechanics deals
also referred to as fluid dynamics by with liquids and gases in
considering fluids at rest as a special motion or at rest.
case of motion with zero velocity. 7
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid or
gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied shear
stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously under the
influence of a shear stress, no matter
how small.
In solids, stress is proportional to
strain, but in fluids, stress is Deformation of a rubber block placed
proportional to strain rate. between two parallel plates under the
influence of a shear force. The shear
When a constant shear force is stress shown is that on the rubber—an
applied, a solid eventually stops equal but opposite shear stress acts on
deforming at some fixed strain the upper plate.
angle, whereas a fluid never stops
deforming and approaches a
constant rate of strain. 10
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies
such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally
occurring flows.
9
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but
the volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of
the container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container
in a gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills
the entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.
Unlike a liquid, a gas does
not form a free surface, and
it expands to fill the entire
available space.
12
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest. The normal stress and shear
stress at the surface of a fluid
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
element. For fluids at rest, the
at a state of zero shear stress. shear stress is zero and pressure
When the walls are removed or a is the only normal stress.
liquid container is tilted, a shear 11
develops as the liquid moves to
re-establish a horizontal free
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it is
above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of
condensation.
Macroscopic or classical
approach: Does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of
individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to
analyze engineering problems.
Microscopic or statistical On a microscopic scale, pressure is
approach: Based on the average determined by the interaction of individual
behavior of large groups of gas molecules. However, we can measure
individual molecules. the pressure on a macroscopic scale with a
pressure gage. 14
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and molecular
ordering is nonexistent.
The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed
positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid
phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random in the gas phase.
13
 16
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid dynamics is used extensively
in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State 15
Electric Total Artificial Heart.
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS
Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each clay A mine hoist powered by
pipe section was 13 to 18 cm in diameter. a reversible water wheel.
18
17
The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty Hawk.
Old and new wind turbine technologies
north of Woodward, OK. The modern
turbines have 1.6 MW capacities.
20
Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating the
onset of turbulence in pipes, being operated by John Lienhard
at the University of Manchester in 1975.
19
 Lecture 34
THE NO-SLIP CONDITION
A fluid flowing over a stationary
surface comes to a complete stop at
the surface because of the no-slip
The development of a velocity profile
due to the no-slip condition as a fluid condition.
flows over a blunt nose.
Boundary layer: The flow region
adjacent to the wall in which the
viscous effects (and thus the
velocity gradients) are significant.
Flow separation during flow over a curved surface. 21
Definition of a Fluid and Newtons' Law of Viscosity
Definition of a Fluid and Newtons' Law of Viscosity
Definition of a Fluid and Newtons' Law of Viscosity
Definition of a Fluid and Newtons' Law of Viscosity
Rate of Strain & Non-Newtonian Fluid
Rate of Strain & Non-Newtonian Fluid
Rate of Strain & Non-Newtonian Fluid
Rate of Strain & Non-Newtonian Fluid
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.
The flow of an originally
uniform fluid stream over a
flat plate, and the regions of
viscous flow (next to the
plate on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from the
plate).
32
Lecture 35
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density of
flowing fluid remains nearly constant
throughout (e.g., liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density of
fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft, and
other systems that involve high-speed
gas flows, the flow speed is often
expressed by Mach number
Schlieren image of the spherical shock wave
produced by a bursting balloon at the Penn State
Ma = 1 Sonic flow Gas Dynamics Lab. Several secondary shocks are
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow seen in the air surrounding the balloon.
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow 34
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a
plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.
• Water flow in a pipe is
internal flow, and airflow
over a ball is external flow
.
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-channel
flow if the duct is only
partially filled with the
liquid and there is a free
External flow over a tennis ball, and the surface.
turbulent wake region behind.
33
 Natural (or Unforced) versus
Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow over
a surface or in a pipe by external means
such as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is due to
natural means such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the
fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter,
warmer air adjacent to her body
indicates that humans and
warm-blooded animals are
surrounded by thermal plumes of
36
rising warm air.
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly ordered fluid
motion characterized by smooth layers of
fluid. The flow of high-viscosity fluids such
as oils at low velocities is typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly disordered fluid
motion that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-viscosity fluids
such as air at high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that alternates
between being laminar and turbulent.
Laminar, transitional, and turbulent
flows over a flat plate. 35
 Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady flow, and (b)
long exposure picture of the same flow. 38
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change at a point with
time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change with location
over a specified region.
• The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady
flow in which the flow oscillates about a steady
mean.
• Many devices such as turbines, compressors,
boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers operate
for long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow
Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil at
devices. Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while photo (b) is a
long-exposure (time-averaged) image.
37
 40
One, Two, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized by its velocity
distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if
the flow velocity varies in one, two, or three dimensions,
respectively.
• However, the variation of velocity in certain directions Flow over a car antenna is approximately
can be small relative to the variation in other directions two-dimensional except near the top and
and can be ignored. bottom of the antenna.
The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the flow is
two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when the
velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r). 39
Pressure
● Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We
speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The
counterpart of pressure in solids is stress. Since pressure is defined as
force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m 2),
which is called a pascal (Pa).
● Some other units for pressure measurement is:
42
Fluid as a continuum
Manometer
● The differential fluid column of height h is
in static equilibrium, and it is open to the
atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2
is determined directly as:
The basic manometer.
44
Manometer
● An elevation change of Δz of a fluid corresponds to ΔP/⍴g, which
suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure pressure
differences. A device based on this principle is called a manometer, and
it is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure
differences.
● Manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one
or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size
of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury
are used if large pressure differences are anticipated.
43
Consider an arbitrary right-angled prismatic triangle in the liquid of density
rho. Since the prismatic element is very small, every point is considered to
be at the same depth from the liquid surface. The effect of gravity is also the
same at all these points.
Let ad, bd, and cd be the area of the faces ABFE, ABDC, and CDFE
respectively. Let P1, P2, and P3 be the pressure on the faces ABFE, ABDC,
and CDFE.
46
Pascal’s Law and its application
● Pressure at any point within a static fluid is the same in all
directions.
● The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is
distributed or transmitted evenly throughout the liquid in all
directions
● The static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact
with the fluid. Pascal also found that the pressure at a point for a
static fluid would be the same across all planes passing through
that point in that fluid.
● Pascal’s law is also known as Pascal’s principle or principle of
transmission of fluid-pressure. In 1653, Pascal law was stated by
French mathematician Blaise Pascal.
45
 Lecture 36
Pressure exerts a force which is normal to the surface. Let P1 exert force F1 on
the surface ABFE, P2 exert force F2 on the surface ABDC, and P3 exert force F3
on the surface CDFE.
Therefore, Force F1, F2, and F3 is given as:
F1 = P1 × area of ABFE = P1 ad
F2 = P2 × area of ABDC = P2 bd
F3 = P3 × area of CDFE = P3 cd
The net force on the prism will be zero since the prism is in equilibrium.
47
● Consider the following diagram:
● Now, consider the fluid flows for a short interval of time in the tube. So,
assume that short interval of time as Δt. In this time, the fluid will cover
a distance of Δx1 with a velocity v1 at the lower end of the pipe.
● At this time, the distance covered by the fluid will be:
Δx1 = v1Δt
50
Continuity Equation
● The continuity equation is defined as the product of cross-sectional
area of the pipe and the velocity of the fluid at any given point along the
pipe is constant.
● Continuity equation represents that the product of cross-sectional area
of the pipe and the fluid speed at any point along the pipe is always
constant. This product is equal to the volume flow per second or simply
the flow rate. Mathematically the continuity equation is given as:
Q = A.v = Constant, where A=Area of cross section,
v= Velocity and Q= Flow rate
● Following are the assumptions of continuity equation:
1. The tube is having a single entry and single exit
2. The fluid flowing in the tube is non-viscous
3. The flow is incompressible
4. The fluid flow is steady 49
● Similarly, the mass flux at the upper end will be:
Δm2/Δt = ρ2A2v2 ——–(Eq. 3)
● Here, v2 is the velocity of the fluid through the upper end of the pipe i.e.
through Δx2 , in Δt time and A2, is the cross-sectional area of the upper
end.
● In this, the density of the fluid between the lower end of the pipe and
the upper end of the pipe remains the same with time as the flow is
steady. So, the mass flux at the lower end of the pipe is equal to the
mass flux at the upper end of the pipe. Thus, using Eq. 2 and 3 we
have:
ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 ——–(Eq. 4)
This can be written in a more general form as:
ρ A v = constant
52
● Now, at the lower end of the pipe, the volume of the fluid that will flow
into the pipe will be:
V = A1 Δx1 = A1 v1 Δt
● It is known that mass (m) = Density (ρ) × Volume (V). So, the mass of
the fluid in Δx1 region will be:
Δm1= Density × Volume
● It is known that mass (m) = Density (ρ) × Volume (V). So, the mass of
the fluid in Δx1 region will be:
Δm1= Density × Volume
and Δm1 = ρ1A1v1Δt ——–(Eq. 1)
● Now, the mass flux has to be calculated at the lower end. Mass flux is
simply defined as the mass of the fluid per unit time passing through
any cross-sectional area. For the lower end with cross-sectional area
A1, mass flux will be:
Δm1/Δt = ρ1A1v1 ——–(Eq. 2) 51
 Questions
1. A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gallon bucket.
The inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the
nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water, determine (a) the
volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and (b) the
mean velocity of water at the nozzle exit.
● Following is the continuity equation for steady flow in cartesian coordinates:
● Following is the continuity equation for incompressible flow as the density, ρ =
constant and is independent of space and time, we get:
● Following is the general continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates:
Where u,v and w are velocities in x, y, z direction respectively in cartesian
coordinate system.
53
● Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an
incompressible fluid is flowing. The relationship between the areas of
cross-sections A, the flow speed v, height from the ground y, and
pressure p at two different points 1 and 2 is given in the figure below.
The assumptions are:
● The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at both points.
● The energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces in
the fluid.
Bernoulli’s principle
● Bernoulli’s principle formulated by Daniel Bernoulli states that as the
speed of a moving fluid increases (liquid or gas), the pressure
within the fluid decreases. Although Bernoulli deduced the law, it was
Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli’s equation in its usual form in the
year 1752.
● In other words, The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid
comprising the gravitational potential energy of elevation, the energy
associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of the fluid
motion, remains constant.
● Mathematically, Bernoulli’s equation is given as:
We know that the work done on the fluid was due to conservation of
gravitational force and change in kinetic energy. The change in kinetic
energy of the fluid is given as:
The change in potential energy is given as:
Therefore, the energy equation is given as:
The work done on the fluid is given as:
Rearranging the above equation, we get:
Which is Bernoulli’s equation.
4. A reducing elbow is used to deflect water flow at a rate of 14 kg/s in a
horizontal pipe upward 300 while accelerating it. The elbow discharges
water into the atmosphere. The cross-sectional area of the elbow is
113 cm2 at the inlet and 7 cm2 at the exit. The elevation difference
between the centers of the exit and the inlet is 30 cm. The weight of the
elbow and the water in it is considered to be negligible. Determine (a)
the gage pressure at the center of the inlet of the elbow and (b) the
anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in place.
5. A 6.0 cm diameter horizontal pipe gradually narrows to 3.5 cm.
When water flows through this pipe at a certain rate, the gauge
pressure in these two sections is 32.5 kPa and 24.6 kPa,
respectively. What is the volume rate of flow?