U20ECT716

Millimeter and
Optical Wave
Communication

Dr. N.SARANYA
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE

Department of electronics anD communication engineering

 Agenda

• Course Objective
• Course Outcome
• Syllabus
• Text book
• Reference Book
• Introduction to mm wave
• Unit-1
 Course Objective

To understand the
To introduce the
principle of millimeter
transceivers for
waves and millimeter
millimeter
transceivers

To equip the student with To introduce the

concepts of light knowledge of optical
propagation through transmitters and
optical fibers and signal receivers for fiber and
distortion free space links

To equip the students with

concept of propagation of light
in space
 Course Outcomes

CO1 • Comprehend and appreciate the significance and

role of millimeter waves (K3)

CO2 • Insight about the fibers types characteristics and

light propagation (K2)

• Identify, understand and evaluate fiber

CO3 transmission characteristics for real time link
design (K3)

CO4 • Thorough knowledge about transmitter and

receiver types and design (K4)

CO5 • Optical networking concepts are explored with

conventional ideas (K3)
 Syllabus
 UNIT - I MILLIMETER WAVES (9 Hrs)
Millimeter wave characteristics- Channel performance at 60
GHz – Gigabit wireless communication – Development of
millimeter wave standards-coexistence with wireless
backhaul – review of modulation for millimeter wave – OOK,
PSK, FSK and QAM.

 UNIT – II TRANCEIVERS FOR MILLIMETER WAVES (9

Hrs)
Millimeter wave link budget – Transceiver architecture –
Transceiver without mixer- Receiver without local oscillator –
Millimeter wave calibration – Millimeter wave antennas –
parameters – beam steering antenna Millimeter wave design
consideration.
 Syllabus

 UNIT – III OPTICAL FIBERS CHARACTERISTICS (9 Hrs)

Relevance of optical communication in backhaul/backbone networks and
interconnects, fiber optics, optical fiber structure and parameters, ray and mode
theory of light propagation in optical fibers, Optical signal attenuation- Optical
signal distortion – Dispersion - fiber types, Standard Single mode and multimode
Fibers, Principles of fiber nonlinearities.
 UNIT – IV OPTICAL TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS (9 Hrs)
Materials for optical sources, light-emitting diodes, semiconductor laser diodes,
power-current characteristics, noise, direct and external modulation, Laser sources
and transmitters for free space communication –Receivers - Principles of optical
detection, spectral responsivity, PIN, APD, preamplifier types, receiver noises.
 UNIT –V FREE SPACE OPTICS (9 Hrs)
Overview of FSO Optical Transmitters – Receivers – Subsystems – Pointing,
Acquisition and Tracking – Line of sight analysis- factors affecting FSO–selecting
transmission wave integration of FSO in Optical networks – installation of FSO
systems.
 Text Books

Theodore Rappaport, Robert Heath.

Kao-Cheng Huang, Zhaocheng Wang, Kao-Cheng Huang, Zhaocheng Wang,
Robert Danielsthor, James Murdock,
“Millimeter Wave Communication “Millimeter Wave Communication
“Millimeter wave wireless
Systems”, Wiley, 2011. Systems”, Wiley, 2011.
communications”, Pearson, 2015
 Reference Books

Sergey M. Smolskiy
HemaniKaushal, V.K. Jain, Govind P. Agrawal, "Fiber- Author, Leonid A. Belov
SubratKar, "Free Space Optic Communication and Victor N.
Optical Communication", Systems", John Wiley & Kochemasov, “Handbook
Springer India, New Delhi, Sons, reprint, 3 rd Edition, of RF, “Microwave, and
2017. 2012. Millimeter-Wave
Components”, Artech
House Microwave Library,
2012.
 Reference Books

Shahid Mumtaz ,Jonathan Su-Khiong Yong, Pengfei Xia , Alberto

Rodriguez , Linglong Valdes-Garcia ,” 60GHz Technology for
Dai,”mmWave Massive MIMO: A Gbps WLAN and WPAN: From Theory
Paradigm for 5G” Academic to Practice”,Wiley, Ist Edition ,2011
Press,2016
Introduction to mm Wave
 What is Frequency ?
The number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given
amount of time.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Frequency Vs. Wavelength
Applications and Frequency
Bands
Spectrum Scarcity
Challenges in Designing the
Next Generation Network
 As the number of mobile users and their expectations rise, 5G
must be capable of transmitting more data quicker than
existing mobile network.

 To achieve this, wireless communication engineers must

design a set of entirely new technologies.

 These technologies will allow,

 The latency of 5G data transmission to be less than one

millisecond (compared to the about 70-millisecond latency
of existing 4G networks)

 Achieve a peak data download speed of 20 Gbit/s

(compared to 1 Gbit/s for 4G).
 Challenges in Designing the
Next Generation Network

 It is still unclear what technologies will play the crucial role in

the development of 5G over the long term, but there are
already some early contenders.

 These technologies include

 Millimeter waves,
 Small base stations
 Massive MIMO
 Full duplex
 Beam forming
 Challenges in Designing the
Next Generation Network
Today's wireless networks face one critical challenge:

 The increasing number of users and devices are consuming

more data than ever before.

 The telecom carriers have to restrict them to the same radio

spectrum frequency band that they have always used.

 This means that each user is allocated a limited amount of

bandwidth, leading to slower speeds and frequent
disconnections.
 Challenges in Designing the
Next Generation Network

 As the number of devices connected to wireless networks

increases, the shortage of frequency band resources will
become even more prominent.

 This has a major impact on user experience.

 However, millimeter wave technology offers a practical solution

to this problem.
 What is Millimeter wave?

 Millimeter waves, also known as extremely high frequency (EHF), is a band of

radio frequencies that is well suited for 5G networks by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).
 mm Wave

 Millimeter wave technology allows transmission on frequencies between 30

GHz to 300 GHz.

 These frequencies are called millimeter waves because they have

wavelengths between 1 mm and 10 mm, while the wavelengths of the radio
waves currently used by smartphones are mostly several dozen centimeters.

 Next generation wireless technology that can provides up to multi- Gpbs

wireless connectivity.

 Data rate is expected to be 40 to 100 time faster than todays wireless LAN
technologies.
 mm Wave

 So far only radar systems and satellites use millimeter waves.

 However, now some mobile network providers have also started using
millimeter waves

 Verizon Wireless
 AT&T
 Sprint
 T-Mobile
 Millimeter Wave Uses
 Millimeter wave has numerous uses, including
telecommunications, short-range radar and airport security
scanners.

 In telecommunications, it is used for high-bandwidth WLANs

and short-range personal area networks (PANs).

 Its high bandwidth capacity is ideal for applications like short-

distance wireless transmission of ultra-high definition video
and communications from small, low-power IoT devices.

 The limited propagation distance - small cell size -and high

data rates make millimeter wave ideal for communications
between autonomous vehicles.
 Millimeter Wave Frequency band
Millimeter wave frequency Currently used Technologies

5G cellular
telecommunications
.

IEEE 802.11ad
multiple gigabit mm (IEEE) 802.15
wireless PAN
wireless system
(MGWS) Wave (WPAN)

IEEE 802.16
WiMAX
 Advantages of mm Wave
 Millimeter waves can support higher data rate due to higher
bandwidth.

 Conventional higher data rate transmission required fiber

optic cable installation.

 It has difficulties for implementation, maintenance and it is not

economical.

 Millimeter wave technology can easily achieve 10 GBps data

rate for communication.

 Another major advantage of millimeter wave technology is its

tiny component size.

 Modern smart devices and mobile phones have to be efficient

and small in size.

 Millimeter waves are complex and it enables high security

transmission.
 Antenna vs. Frequency

•
 Antenna vs. Frequency

•
 Disadvantages of mm Wave

 Millimeter waves require line of sight communication.

 One of the major disadvantages of the millimeter waves are distortion from
atmosphere.

 During cloudy atmosphere, DVB services will be distorted due to poor signal
quality.

 Due to higher distortion from atmospheric conditions like fog and dust, it is
not suitable for long distance communication.

 Millimeter wave architecture is complex, it required advanced technology

infrastructure to develop a system.
 Applications of mm wave

Automotive Application
 Applications of mm Wave

HD Video Application

Satellite Communication
Body Scanners
 Millimeter Waves
Millimeter Wave Characteristics

Channel Performance at 60 GHz

Gigabit Wireless Communication

Development of Millimeter wave

standard

Coexistence with wireless

backhaul

Review of modulation for

millimeter wave

OOK, PSK,FSK and QAM

 mm Wave Characteristics

 Millimeter waves are usually considered to be the range of wavelengths from 10

to 1 mm.

 This means they are larger than infrared waves or x-rays, but smaller than radio
waves or microwaves.

 The millimeter-wave region of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the

radio band frequency range of 30–300 GHz and is also called the extremely
high frequency (EHF) range.

 The high frequencies of millimeter waves, as well as their propagation

characteristics make them useful for a variety of applications, including the
transmission of large amounts of data, cellular communications, and radar.

 It can be used for high-speed Internet, data, and voice communications.

 mm Wave Characteristics

Key Benefits
Key Benefits

Unlicensed Highly Secure High level of frequency

Operation Operation re-use enabled

The communication
Resulting from short transmission needs of multiple cells
No license from the Federal distances due to oxygen
Communications within a small
absorption, narrow antenna beam geographic region can
Commission is required. width, and no wall penetration be satisfied

Fiber optic data Carrier-Class

transmission speed Mature Technology Communication link
enabled
possible

7 GHz (in the U.S.) of 60 GHz links can be

This spectrum has a long engineered to deliver
continuous bandwidth history of being used for
available compared to less “five nines” (99.999%)
secure communications. availability if desired
than 0.3 GHz at the other
unlicensed bands
 mm Wave Characteristics

Key aspects of the Characteristics of Millimeter wave

Millimeter
wave
characteristics

Millimeter
Free Space Wave
Propagation Propagation
Loss
 mm Wave Characteristics

Free Space Propagation

 As with all propagating electromagnetic waves, for millimeter waves in free

space the power falls off as the square of the range.

 When the range is doubled, the power reaching a receiver antenna is

reduced by a factor of four.

 This effect is due to the spherical spreading of the radio waves as they
propagate.

 The frequency and distance dependence of the loss between two isotropic
antennas can be expressed in absolute numbers by the following equation
(in dB)
 mm Wave Characteristics

Free Space Propagation

L-free space is the free-space loss

R is the distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas
λ- is the operating wavelength

 This equation describes line-of sight (LOS) wave propagation in free space.

 It shows that the free space loss increases when the frequency or range increases.

 Millimeter wave free space loss can be quite high even for short distances.

 It suggests that the millimeter-wave spectrum is best used for short-distance

communication links.
 mm Wave Characteristics
Free Space Propagation

 When the distance of the link R =10 m, path loss can be calculated using
(4πR/λ^2).
Path loss of different unlicensed band:

2.45 GHz • 60 dB

5 GHz • 66 dB

60 GHz • 88 dB

 The loss difference between 60 GHz and other unlicensed bands already
pushes system design to the limit.

 One way to cover this extra 22 dB (i.e., 88- 66 =22) of loss is with a high
gain antenna and architecture.
 mm Wave Characteristics
Friis Free Space Propagation

 It gives a more complete accounting for all the factors from the
transmitter to the receiver

where GTX - transmitting antenna gain

GRX - receiving antenna gain
λ-wavelength
R is the line-of-sight distance separating the transmitting and
receiving antennas,
L -system loss factor (>1)
Grx. λ^2/4pi is the effective area of the receiving antenna
 mm Wave Characteristics
Millimeter Wave Propagation Loss Factors
 In addition to the free-space loss, which is the main source of transmission loss,
there are also absorption loss factors, such as gaseous losses and losses from rain
in the transmission medium.
 The factors that affect millimeter wave propagation:
 mm Wave Characteristics
Millimeter Wave Propagation Loss Factor

 Atmospheric losses means that transmission losses occur when

millimeter waves traveling through the atmosphere are absorbed by
molecules of oxygen, water vapor, and other gaseous atmospheric
constituents.

 These losses are greater at certain frequencies, coinciding with the

mechanical resonant frequencies of the gas molecules.

 The H2O and O2 resonances have been studied extensively for the
purpose of predicting millimeter wave propagation characteristics
 mm Wave Characteristics
Millimeter Wave Propagation Loss Factor
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

While signals at lower frequency bands, such as Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM) signals, can propagate for many kilometers and more
easily penetrate buildings,

Mllimeter wave signals can only travel a few kilometers, or less, and suffer from
high transmission losses in the air and solid materials.

These millimeter wave propagation characteristics can be very advantageous in

short range communication applications.

Millimeter waves can be used to establish more densely packed communication

links, thus providing very efficient spectrum utilization, by means of frequency
reuse, and thus they can increase the overall capacity of communication systems.
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

The main challenges in utilizing a 60 GHz channel:

High loss
Human shadowing
Non-line-of-sight propagation
Doppler shift
Noise
Channel Performance at 60 GHz

Multipath effect of indoor wireless

communications
Channel Performance at 60 GHz

Signal to
Multipath Channel
Noise
Effect Capacity
Ratio
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

Channel Capacity
• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) limits
the equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) of a 60
GHz communication link to 40 dBm.

• The transmitter’s power and path loss can be limiting

factors for a high-speed wireless link.

• However, antenna directivity can be used to increase the

power gain in the desired direction.
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

Example Scenario

 Assuming a simple line-of-sight free-space communication link, where both

the received power PRX and noise figure for the receiving system are 10
dBm and 10 dB, respectively, three different lengths are used for the
distance R between the transmitter and receiver: 10, 15, and 20 m.

 Also, if we assume single omnidirectional antennas at the transmitter and

receiver, the received power PRX at a distance R decreases with an
increase in frequency, and a 10-dB human shadowing loss is assumed for
a system operating at 60 GHz.
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

 Even when the bandwidth is unlimited, the received power PRX is still limited by
the Shannon Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) capacity, as given by
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

 Use an omnidirectional antenna to achieve Gbps data rate

when human shadowing exists.
 When the transceiver has PT -10 dBm, the noise figure
NFRX -6 dB, and the environment has a human shadowing
loss of 18 dB, we need the antenna gain of a to be in the
range of 10–15 dB for 1 Gbps at 60 GHz.
 The total antenna gain has to be approximately 30 dB at
least.
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

60 GHz Channel Parameters

Tx Power, PT – 10 dBm

Noise figure, NF -6 dB

Implementation loss, IL - 6dB

Thermal noise, N0- 174 dBm/ MHz

Bandwidth, BW - 1.5 GHz

Distance, R - 20 m

Path loss at 1 m, PL0 57.5 dB

 Channel Performance at 60 GHz
Signal to Noise Ratio(SNR)

The ratio of the signal power to noise power at the Rx (in dB),
by

where ,

GTx and GRx denote the transmitting and receiving antenna gains
respectively.

PTx denotes the transmitter power

 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

It was found that for the LOS condition, data rate can go up to 5 Gbps.

On the other hand, the operating distance for an NLOS condition is
limited to below 3 m, although the NLOS capacity decreases more
drastically as a function of distance

To improve the capacity for a given operating distance, one can either
increase the bandwidth or signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or both
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

 On the other hand, the overall capacity over the considered distance
increases notably if a 10-dBi transmit antenna gain is employed as
compared to the omnidirectional antenna for both 1.5-GHz and 7-
GHz bandwidths.

 This clearly shows the importance of antenna gain in providing a

very high data application at 60 GHz, which is not possible to be
provided with omni- directional antenna configuration.

how much gain is required?

 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

• The capacity as a function of combined Tx and Rx gain for operating

distance.
• In order to achieve 5 Gbps data rate at 20 m, combined gains of 25
dBi and 37 dBi were required for LOS and NLOS, respectively .
• However, to achieve the same data rates in a noisy channel, a higher
gain is needed to overcome the interference.
• Thus, directional antennas are required for Gigabit wireless
communications.
 Channel Performance at 60 GHz

Classification of millimeter wave links according to the antenna beam

width of the access point (AP) and mobile terminal (MT), in respect to
the existence of a line-of-sight path
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

• In wired communication, the adoption of each successive

generation of Ethernet technology has been driven by

– Economics,
– Performance demand,
– Rate at which the price of the new generation has approached
the old one

• In 2007, the industry announced the availability of 10-Gb Ethernet

over copper wiring.

• Gigabit Ethernet became affordable (below $200) for server

connections, and desktop gigabit connections have come within
$10 or less of the cost of 100 Mbps technology.
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

• The serial 100-Gb Ethernet PHY (physical layer) based on

advanced modulation techniques such as differential quadrature-
phase-shifted-keying (DQPSK) have been experimentally
demonstrated worldwide.

• Gigabit Ethernet has become the standard for servers, and

systems are now routinely ordered with gigabit network interface
cards.

• The prices of wireless gigabit links approach the prices of 100

Mbps links, users are switching to the higher-performance
product, both for traditional wireless applications and for
applications that only become practical at gigabit speeds.
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Existing approaches for high data rate :

• IEEE 802.11n, enhance data rates by evolving the standards of
the existing wireless LANs to increase data rates to speeds that
are up to 10 times faster than IEEE 802.11a or 802.11g.

• IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) can provide broadband wireless access up

to 50 km with speeds around 70 Mbps.

• Ultra-wideband (UWB), are pursuing much more aggressive

strategies, such as sharing spectra with other users.
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Solution :
• The millimeter wave systems that are available have mainly been
deployed for military applications.

• With the advances in process technologies and low-cost

integration solutions, this technology has started to gain a great
deal of momentum from academia, industry, and standardization
bodies.

• Importantly, 60 GHz technology offers various advantages over

the currently proposed or existing communications systems.

• One of the deciding factors that makes 60 GHz technology

attractive is the establishment of a (relatively) huge unlicensed
bandwidth (up to 7 GHz), which is available worldwide.
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

• While this is comparable to the unlicensed bandwidth allocated

for UWB purposes (2 GHz–10 GHz), the 60 GHz band is
continuous and less restricted in terms of power limits.

• This is due to the fact that the UWB system is an overlay system,
and thus subject to different considerations and very strict
regulation.

• The large band at 60 GHz is, in fact, one of the largest unlicensed
spectral resources ever allocated.
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

• This huge bandwidth offers great potential in terms of capacity

and flexibility and makes 60 GHz technology particularly
attractive for gigabit wireless applications.

• Although 60 GHz regulations allow a much higher transmission

power compared to other existing WLAN and wireless personal
area network (WPAN) systems, the higher transmission power is
necessary to overcome the higher path loss at 60 GHz.
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

• The typical 480 Mbps bandwidth of the UWB cannot fully support
broadcast video, requiring the recompression of packets.

• This forces manufacturers to utilize expensive encoders and

install more memory in their systems, in effect losing video
content and adding latency in the process.

• The 60 GHz technology could actually provide better resolution,

with less latency and cost for television, DVD players, and other
high-definition equipment, compared to the UWB.

• IEEE standard 802.15.3C was published in September 2009 for

mm wave.
• It allows very high data rate over 2 Gbit/s applications. Optional
data rate in excess of 3 Gbit/s can be provided.
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

• Data rates requirements for WLAN and WPAN standards and

Millimeter wave technology
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Advantages of Gigabit wireless in millimetre wave over other

technology:
• High path loss at 60 GHz seems to be a disadvantage, it
essentially confines the 60 GHz power and system operation to
within a room in an indoor environment.

1. Hence, the effective interference levels for 60 GHz are less

severe than for those systems located in the congested 2–2.5
GHz and 5–5.8 GHz regions.

2. In addition, higher frequency reuse can also be achieved over a

very short distance in an indoor environment, thus allowing a
very high throughput network
 GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Advantages of Gigabit wireless in millimetre wave over other

technology:

3. The compact size of a 60 GHz receiver also permits multiple

antenna solutions at a user terminal, which are otherwise
difficult, if not impossible, at lower frequencies.

4. Compared to a 5-GHz system, the form factor of millimeter wave

systems is approximately 140 times smaller and can be
conveniently integrated into consumer electronic products.

• Millimeter wave technology is certainly the first choice to build

gigabit wireless communications.
GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Comparison of Three Technologies for Gigabit Wireless

Communications
 DEVELOPMENT OF MILLIMETER WAVE
STANDARDS

Europe

• The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and the European

Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) have been
working closely to establish a legal framework for the deployment of unlicensed 60
GHz devices.

• In general, the 59–66 GHz band has been allocated for mobile services without a
specific decision on the regulations.

• The frequency band being considered is 57–66 GHz.

 DEVELOPMENT OF MILLIMETER WAVE
STANDARDS

Europe:
 DEVELOPMENT OF MILLIMETER WAVE
STANDARDS

United States:

• The U.S. FCC allocated 7 GHz in the 57–64GHz band for

unlicensed use.

• The FCC rules allow emissions with an average power density of 9

mW/cm2 at 3 m and a maximum power density of 18 mW/cm2 at a
range of 3 m from the radiating source.

• A maximum EIRP of 40 dBm and 43 dBm, respectively.

• The FCC also specified a total maximum transmission power of

500 mW for an emission bandwidth greater than 100 MHz.
 DEVELOPMENT OF MILLIMETER WAVE
STANDARDS

Japan
• The Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts, and
Telecommunications (MPHPT) of Japan issued 60 GHz radio
regulations for unlicensed utilization of the 59–66 GHz band.
• However, the 54.25–59 GHz band is allocated for licensed use.
• The maximum transmission power for this unlicensed use is
limited to 10 dBm, with a maximum allowable antenna gain of 47
dBi.
• There was no specification for RF radiation exposure and
transmitter identification requirements.
DEVELOPMENT OF MILLIMETER
WAVE STANDARDS
Mm wave in India????
Application of Millimeter wave
Application of Millimeter wave
 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• 60 GHz: V-band
• 80 GHz: E-Band
• Very Narrow Beamwidth
• Range and Throughput
• Security
• Quality of Service
 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• 60 GHz: V-band:

• The 57–64 GHz band (best known as 60 GHz) is located in the

millimeter-wave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• The advantages of using this band include interference mitigation,

strong security, QoS frequency re-use.
 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• 80 GHz: E-Band

• The E-Band refers to 10 GHz of licensed-band spectrum allocated

by the U.S. FCC, split between 71–76 GHz and 81–86 GHz.

• With more spectrally efficient modulations, full duplex data rates of

10 Gbps (OC-192 or 10GigE) can be reached.

• E-Band frequencies are licensed by the FCC in a streamlined

licensing process.

• Licensed spectrum products are allowed more power than

unlicensed spectrum products, further enhancing the range and
throughput of 80-GHz products.
 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• Very Narrow Beamwidth

• Antenna directivity (beamwidth) is limited by the physical principle of

diffraction, where in the beamwidth is inversely proportional to the
operating frequency.

• At 60 GHz, for example, the beamwidth is far narrower than at lower

frequencies.
 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• Advantages of very narrow beamwidth:

• It avoids interference from other emitters in the same band.

• It offers superior security.

• It offers a high rate of frequency reuse in a backhaul network.

• It has the power to overcome rain fading.

 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• Range and throughput demands of the market:
 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• Security:

• In the service provider market, casual hackers are less of a concern

than the wholesale theft of services via rogue base stations.

• A very narrow beamwidth is not enough to ensure good security on any

wireless networks.

• Most backhaul solutions can be engineered for authentication

processes, followed by equally demanding encryption programs for the
data stream.

• A possible 60 GHz/WiMAX OFDM mapping solution

 COEXISTENCE WITH WIRELESS
BACKHAUL
• Quality of Service
• Most 60 and 80 GHz products offer traffic prioritization schemes to
ensure VoIP and video over the backhaul link.

• most of these products also offer sophisticated modulation schemes to

ensure good QoS with up to 99.999% availability.

• Millimeter wave V-band and E-Band products keep latency over their
respective wireless links at single digit nanoseconds (<10ns).

• This ensures good QoS for time-sensitive applications, such as VoIP

and video.
 Review of Modulation for
Millimeter Wave
• Digital modulation schemes transform digital signals into millimeter wave signals
that are compatible with the nature of the communication channels.

• There are two major categories of digital modulations.

– The first category uses a constant amplitude carrier to carry the

information in phase or frequency variations, such as
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK).

– The second category conveys the information in carrier amplitude

variations, such as
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 Review of Modulation for
Millimeter Wave
Millimeter Wave Consideration :

• Millimeter wave radios require high power efficiency with low bit error rate
(BER).

• Power efficiency is the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity

of the digital message at low power levels.

• Millimeter wave power has high cost, either 64 or 256 QAM is not preferable due
to the effect of phase noise and power consumption of the power amplifier (PA).

• Receiver cost or complexity should also be considered, especially in multiple-

input-multiple-output systems
 Review of Modulation for
Millimeter Wave
Different Modulation techniques used in the millimeter wave communication:

 ON/OFF KEYING (OOK)

 PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)
 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)
 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• On/off keying (OOK) modulation is a modulation scheme used in control
applications.
• Simplicity and low implementation costs
• OOK consists of keying a sinusoidal carrier signal on and off with a
unipolar binary signal
• OOK is equivalent to two-level ASK.
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
Advantages of OOK Modulation Technique:

It allowing the transmitter to idle during the transmission of a “0”, therefore
conserving power.

Input signal has two states (“1” and “0”) and modulation factor is 100% (from
full power to no transmitted power).

Disadvantages of OOK Modulation technique:

OOK modulation arises in the presence of an undesired signal.

 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• Consider a set of two basis vectors φ1 and φ2 .
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• The transmitter is on when logic “1” is transmitted and the transmitter is off when
logic “0” is transmitted.
• OOK receivers require an adaptable threshold and automatic gain controller
(AGC) in order to ensure an optimal threshold setting.
• A logarithm amplifier detector with an averaging bit slicer is employed.

• This circuit will ensure that the threshold is set between the signal levels of a “0”
and a “1” transmission.
• The above circuit works well as long as the data received is effectively D.C.
balanced.
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
There are two types of demodulation method, namely

– Synchronous demodulation
– Envelope demodulation
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
Synchronous demodulation:

– Synchronous demodulation is also known as coherent demodulation

– The coherent carrier for demodulation is 2cos(2πfct)

– Where the amplitude factor of “2” used here is for calculation convenience, and
fc is the carrier frequency used for the generation of OOK signal.

– The carrier phases of the transmitter and receiver are assumed to be the same
and they are dropped for notational convenience.
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• When “1” is transmitted, the received OOK signal is acos(2pfct) and can pass
through the band-pass filter smoothly, where a is the amplitude of the received signal.
• n(t) is the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN).
• After the band-pass filter, n(t) is converted to a narrow-band Gaussian noise, which is
given as

• where nc(t) and ns(t) are the in-phase and quadrature components,
respectively.
• So when code “1” is transmitted, the signal after the band-pass filter is,

• The multiplier output is

 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• After the low-pass filter, the later two items are filtered out. So the
output signal is

• x(t) is the input signal to the decision device. When code “0” is
transmitted, the OOK signal is zero, but the noise still exists.
• The input signal to the decision device is,
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• The total probability of error is determined by two possible error
conditions, the probability of a “1” being sent and the receiver
mistaking it for a “0” (a miss) and the probability of a “0” being sent
and the receiver detecting a “1” (false alarm).

• where Vt is the decision threshold, and p1(r) and p0(r) are the
conditional probability density functions given “1” and “0” being sent,
respectively
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• When Vt =a/2 is chosen, Pe is given by

• If we define the SNR to be the signal to noise ratio when code “1” is
sent, then
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• Envelope demodulation

For the non coherent demodulation, when code “1” is sent, the input signal
to the envelope detector is a cos (2pifct)+ni(t).

The output of the envelope detector is the envelope of the sum of the
useful signal and the narrow band Gaussian noise, which meets the Ricean
distribution.
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• Envelope demodulation

• where I0(x) is the first zero-order modified Bessel function,

• When code “0” is sent, the input signal to the envelope detector is ni(t),
and the output is the envelope of the narrow-band Gaussian noise,
which meets the Rayleigh distribution,
 ON/OFF Keying (OOK)
Modulation Technique
• The approximate probability of error for OOK modulation using envelope detection,
which is expressed as

• The SNR is a physical quantity that can be easily measured, but it does not explicitly
state the power efficiency.
• To evaluate the power efficiency, one must know the average energy Eb per useful
bit at the receiver that is needed for a reliable recovery of the information.

• where Eb/N0 is the signal energy per bit/noise power spectral density
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
• Digital information can be transmitted by modulating the frequency of
the carrier.
• If we use a binary signal, two different frequencies, f1 and f2, are used
to transmit the information.
• The two resulting signal waveforms, s1 and s0, can be expressed as

• If the bit “1” is emitted, then the signal waveform s1(t) is transmitted.
• If the bit “0” is emitted, then the signal waveform s0(t) is transmitted.
• Note that f1 f0 is so chosen such that s1(t) and s0(t) are orthogonal
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

FSK signal generators:

(a) noncoherent,

(b) Coherent
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

FSK signal can be generated both coherently with an IQ modulator and

noncoherently with simply a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) and a digital voltage
source.
The terms coherent and noncoherent are frequently used when discussing the
generation and reception of digital modulation.
The instantaneous frequency of the output waveform is determined by the
modulator.
The instantaneous phase of the signal is not controlled and can have any value
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

When a coherent modulator is used to generate the FSK signal, both

frequency and phase are controlled.

The modulator offers the possibility to shape the resultant carrier phase
trajectory at baseband either with analogue filtering or digital signal
processing and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

This can be used to generate both constant amplitude and amplitude-

modulated signals
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

There are two types of demodulation schemes in FSK,

Synchronous demodulation
Envelope demodulation
Synchronous Demodulation
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

The two band-pass filters with center frequency of f1 and f2, the input FSK signal
is split into two OOK signals. Then the demodulation is similar to the OOK.

Assuming that the output signal of the upper low-pass filter is x1 and the lower
low-pass filter output is x2, the decision criterion is

If the input signal is f1, the output of the upper band-pass filter can be expressed

The output of the lower branch

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
When input signal is f1, we have

Let nz(t)= n1,c(t) -n2,c(t)

nz(t) is a subtraction of the two independent zero-mean low-pass Gaussian

noise.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

•The probability distribution of z1(t), which is denoted as p1(z), is Gaussian

distribution with mean of A and variance of 2σn2 .

•The shadow area 1 is the probability of decision error when f1 is sent

and f2 is decided, which is denoted as Pe(f2/f1),
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
When input signal is f2, we have

when x1-x2 < 0, f2 is decided, we have

The corresponding probability distribution p2(z):

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

•The shaded area 2 is the decision error probability when f2 is sent and f1
is decided, which is denoted as Pe(f1/f2)
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique

•The total probability of decision error for noncoherent FSK

demodulation is

where P( f1) and P( f2) are the priori probabilities of f1 and f2,
respectively. When P(f1)=P(f2)= ½ then

Where
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
• Envelope demodulation
• It consists of two branches of ASK envelope demodulators.
• When f1 is sent, the upper envelope detector’s output x1 obeys
Ricean distribution, and the lower envelope detector’s output is
Rayleigh distribution.
• When f2 is sent, the distribution of x1 becomes Rayleigh while x2 has
a Ricean distribution.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
• Envelope demodulation
Assume that f2 is sent

The probability of error conditioned on f2 is

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Modulation Technique
• Envelope demodulation
The probability of error conditioned on f2 is

•For a coherent demodulation, system makes a demodulation decision

based on the received signal phase, not frequency.
•The additional “information” available results in an improved BER
performance.
•The high level of digital integration in semiconductor devices has
made digitally based coherent demodulators common in mobile
communications systems.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• Phase shift keying (PSK) is a large class of digital modulation
schemes.

• PSK is widely used in the communication industry.

• The simplest form of phase modulation is binary (two-level) phase

modulation.

• For binary phase shift keying (BPSK) the carrier phase has only two
states, 0 and p.

• The transition from a “1” to a “0”, or vice versa.

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) devices modulate input signals by 0, 90, 180,
and 270 degree phase shifts.

• Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero (i.e., 180 degree phase transition).

• In OQPSK, the transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered.

• Phase transitions are therefore limited to 90 degree.

• In p/4-QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so transitions
through the origin can be avoided.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• Insertion loss is the total RF power transmission loss through the device.

• Amplitude unbalance is the difference in power between the I output signal

and the Q output signal.

• Phase unbalance is the deviation from 90 degree of the phase angle

difference of the I and Q output signals.

• VSWR is a unit less ratio ranging from 1 to infinity that expresses the amount
of reflected energy at the input of the device.
– A value of 1 indicates that all of the energy passes through.
– Any other value indicates that a portion of the energy is reflected.

• Other performance specifications for QPSK and BPSK modulators include

frequency range, return loss, and reflected power.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Binary Phase Shift Keying
• If a sinusoidal carrier is modulated by a bipolar bit stream a(t)
• Its polarity will be reversed every time the bit stream changes polarity.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique

• The BPSK signal can be expressed as

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Coherent Demodulator:
• The BPSK coherent demodulator is one type of binary coherent detectors.
• The coherent detector could be in the form of a correlator or matched filter
with the reference signal of cos(2pfct).
• The frequency and phase between the reference signal and the received
signal have to be synchronous.
• The synchronous reference signal can be generated by the carrier recovery
circuit.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique

The probability of error for a coherent receiver system with BPSK

modulation
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Disadvantages of BPSK Coherence Receiver :
• The receiver cannot know the exact phase of the transmitted signal.

• It is not possible even if the transmitter and the receiver clocks were
accurately linked because the path length would determine the exact
phase of the received signal.

• To overcome this problem, PSK systems can use a differential method

for encoding the data onto the carrier.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• Further improvements can be made upon this basic system and a
number of other types of PSK have been developed.

• One simple improvement can be made by making a change in phase

of 90 in one direction for a “1”, and 90 in the other way for a “0”.

• This retains the 180 phase reversal between “1” and “0” states, but
gives a distinct change for a “0”.

• In a basic system not using this process it may be possible to loose

synchronization if a long series of “0” is sent.

• This is because the phase will not change state for this occurrence.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• The structure of the differential BPSK (DBPSK) modulator

• The logic device could be binary exclusive-OR (XOR) operator.

DBPSK signal can be coherently demodulated or differentially
demodulated, which does not require a coherent reference signal.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• It is a simple differential demodulator where the previous symbol is
used as the reference for demodulating the current symbol.
• The band-pass filter can reduce noise power but preserve the signal.
• The low-pass filter can also be used instead of the integrator.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• One of the differential encoding rules for DBPSK signal generation is

• Where is the operation of binary XOR. The recovery of ak from dk is

• During the encoding process, when bit “1” is transmitted, the encoded
signal will change the polarity, and otherwise the encoded signal will
hold the previous state.

• At the receiver, the opposite operation is applied.

• The demapping rules used are 1 to “0” and 1 to “1”

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
• Optimum Demodulator of DBPSK signal
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Optimum Demodulator of DBPSK signal :
• The bit error probability of the optimum demodulator

• When an ideal narrow-band intermediate frequency (IF) filter with

bandwidth W is used before the integrator, the bit error probability is

• If an ideal wide-band IF filter is used, the approximate bit error

probability is
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
QPSK :
• QPSK is effectively two independent BPSK systems (I and Q), and
therefore exhibits twice bandwidth efficiency.
• The two signal components with their bit assignments and the total
combined signals.
• The phase of I or Q signal changes abruptly at some of the bit-period
boundaries.
• QPSK can be filtered using raised cosine filters to achieve excellent
out-of-band suppression.
• Large envelope variations occur during phase transitions, thus
requiring linear amplification.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Coherent demodulator for QPSK
• It consists of two individual BPSK demodulators for both I and Q
channels.
• The two demodulated signals are converted into one data sequence
by the parallel to serial converter (P/S).
• This is possible due to the correspondence and orthogonality between
data bits from I and Q channels.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Differential QPSK
• Differential QPSK (DQPSK) is an important special case of QPSK
system in which the phase ambiguity can be eliminated.
• In the DQPSK system the information bits are represented by the
phase differences Δθi from symbol to symbol, where i ¼ 0, 1, 2, 3.
• There are different phase assignments between Di and logic bits.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Differential QPSK
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Differential QPSK
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Differential QPSK

The bit error probability of the differential demodulator

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Differential QPSK

•The coherent demodulator for the DQPSK signal is basically the same as the
coherent QPSK demodulator except that a differential decoder detecting phase
differences has to be used.

• However, because the demodulated signals from both I and Q channel are
digital values with “0” and “1”, the differential decoding can be simplified.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
Differential QPSK

•The coherent demodulator for the DQPSK signal is basically the same as the
coherent QPSK demodulator except that a differential decoder detecting phase
differences has to be used.

• However, because the demodulated signals from both I and Q channel are
digital values with “0” and “1”, the differential decoding can be simplified.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
OQPSK
• OQPSK is a variant of QPSK modulation
• Which differ from the QPSK only by an extra T/2 delay in the Q-
channel.
• Because of the offset between I and Q channels, the OQPSK signal has
a symbol period of T/2
• At any symbol boundary, only one of the two bits can change the sign.
• Thus the phase changes between adjacent symbols can only be 0 and
90 whereas the phase of QPSK signal can jump as much as 180 at a
time.
• Since the 180 phase shifts no longer exist in OQPSK signal, the
amplitude fluctuations is less severe compared with the conventional
QPSK
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
OQPSK Modulator
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
OQPSK Demodulator
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
π/4-QPSK
• One problem of OQPSK systems is that the differential encoding cannot
be used.

• π/4-QPSK is an improved scheme compared with OQPSK, because it

not only has no 180 phase shifts, but also can be differentially encoded.

• Therefore, π/4-QPSK is more suitable for mobile communication

systems.

• It has been adopted in the digital cellular telephone systems in the

United States and Japan
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
π/4-QPSK Modulator
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
π/4-QPSK Demodulator
• The information is carried by the phase changes Dk, differentially
coherent demodulation can be used.
• However, coherent demodulation is desirable when higher power
efficiency is required.
• There are four ways to demodulate a p/4-QPSK signal:
(1) Baseband differential detection,
(2) IF differential detection,
(3) Frequency modulation (FM) discriminator detection
(4) Coherent detection.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
π/4-QPSK Demodulator
Baseband differential detection,
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
π/4-QPSK Demodulator

IF differential detection
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
π/4-QPSK Demodulator

Frequency modulation (FM) discriminator detection

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Modulation Technique
π/4-QPSK Demodulator
Coherent detection
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a complicated name
for a simple technique.
• QAM is the combination of amplitude modulation and phase shift
keying
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
• Signal Amplitude and Phase:

• sm(t) as a linear combination of two orthogonal waveforms

•QAM is a modulation scheme in which data is transferred by modulating the

amplitude of two separate orthogonal carrier waves, which are out of phase by 90
dg.
• Due to their 90 phase difference, they are called quadrature carriers.
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
• QAM involves sending digital information by periodically
adjusting the phase and amplitude of a sinusoidal
electromagnetic wave.
• 4-QAM uses four combinations of phase and amplitude of a
sinusoidal electromagnetic wave, and each combination is
assigned a 2-bit digital pattern.
• Each unique 2-bit digital pattern is called a symbol.
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
Advantages of QAM
• QAM has a tremendous advantage in capable of achieving high
bandwidth efficiency.
• Unmodulated signals exhibit only two positions enabling a
transfer of either a “0” or “1”.
• In QAM, it is possible to transfer more bits per symbol as there
are multiple points of transfer.
• In QAM, a signal obtained by summing the amplitude and phase
modulation of a carrier signal (a modulated sine and cosine wave
or quadrature waves) is used for the data transfer.
• The number of transfer points remains high, it is possible to
convey more bits per symbol.
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
Disadvantages of higher order QAM
– The constellation points in the higher-order scheme have to be
packed much closer to each other.
– However, such a configuration dramatically reduces the noise
immunity of the modulation scheme.
– Practical implementation, a higher order QAM delivers data with
lower reliability than a lower-order one.
– Higher the value of M is, the lower power efficiency.
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)

The error probability can be