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 EDITED BY
ANIRUDH AGRAWAL
PAYAL KUMAR

SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND

SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS MODELS

The Case of India

Social Entrepreneurship and Sustainable
Business Models
Anirudh Agrawal • Payal Kumar
Editors

Social
Entrepreneurship
and Sustainable
Business Models
The Case of India
Editors
Anirudh Agrawal Payal Kumar
Copenhagen Business School BML Munjal University
Copenhagen, Denmark Haryana, India

ISBN 978-3-319-74487-2    ISBN 978-3-319-74488-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74488-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018936908

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing
AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to all social entrepreneurs who make it their
business to transform society.
 Foreword

India is a land of contrasts: while it is one of the fastest growing econo-

mies with increasing GDP, it also features amongst the lowest on Human
Development index, Hunger Index and Multi-Dimensional Poverty.
While the country boasts of the third largest technically qualified man-
power, it is unable to provide basic primary education to its children. As
a food-surplus nation, it also hosts the largest proportion of malnour-
ished children in the world. India features among the countries with the
largest number of millionaires, but it also has about one-third of its pop-
ulation living below the poverty line of Rs 47/day. It is one of the “young-
est countries” with the advantage of demographic dividends, but most of
its youth are also uneducated, unskilled and unemployable. Moreover,
during the last few decades, this gap has widened since the government
has been decreasing its welfare role in providing services to the “bottom
of the pyramid” segments. In order to help address these massive prob-
lems, social entrepreneurship is one of the most favourable strategies for
both society and the government.
Unlike traditional entrepreneurship literature, where the definition is
widely understood and established, social entrepreneurship as a construct
is struggling to establish well-defined boundaries in academia. Both as an
area of research and as practice, the diversity of its manifestation poses a
challenge in arriving at a uniformly accepted definition of what social
entrepreneurship is.
vii
viii Foreword

If one goes through the profiles of people who have been recognized,
celebrated and quoted in research and case studies as social entrepreneurs
(e.g., Ashoka Fellows, recipients of Schwab Social Entrepreneur of the Year,
Echoing Green Fellow), it is difficult to find a common conceptual thread.
These individuals work in very diverse fields (energy, human trafficking,
agriculture, worker’s rights, rural markets, etc.); use very different strate-
gies to make the social impact they intend to achieve (e.g., providing
affordable access to social goods and services, building value chains, or
social mobilization, activism and advocacy); and create different kinds of
organizational entities which range from pure for-profits to donation-­
based NGOs while they have dissimilar backgrounds in terms of their
educational qualifications, work experience and family. It is not surpris-
ing that the academic discipline too is replete with very different defini-
tions of social entrepreneurship. As Broader (2009, p. 30) observed:
“Social entrepreneurship is allergic to definitions, many of us can’t describe
social entrepreneurship, but we know it when we see it.”
There are many reasons why defining social entrepreneurship is such
an important task. As a field of academic study, social entrepreneurship is
still in its formative stage. Researchers in the field represent a wide range
in their academic background (e.g., public policy, economics, marketing,
finance, social development, agriculture), and are guided by the lenses of
their disciplines in understanding the phenomenon. In addition, the
practice of social entrepreneurship itself is evolving with the emergence
of newer social issues and problems (e.g., impacts of climate change, refu-
gee crisis) which need be to be, and can be, addressed by individuals.
But perhaps the most important reason for this diversity of definitions
is that by its very nature, social entrepreneurship is embedded, and finds
manifestation, in the local social and cultural context. Societies differ in
terms of the significant social problems, which need to be addressed, and
therefore provide different kind of opportunities to the social entrepre-
neurs (Mair, 2010). Many problems, which are significant in the Indian
context (e.g., caste discrimination, substantial size of the ultra-poor seg-
ment, lack of access to basic social services such as primary education or
health care) would not be irrelevant in many other countries. Moreover,
societies also differ in terms of the enabling ecosystem mechanisms (e.g.,
sources of funding, regulatory environment, social and institutional
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 Foreword
   ix

structures) which both constrain and enable the kind of solutions which
are possible and relevant in the local context.
While the term ‘social entrepreneurship’ is of recent origin and its aca-
demic pursuit even more recent, the practice of social entrepreneurship in
India has a long history (Shukla, 2010a). As a culture which reinforces
the values of “giving” and duty towards the collective well-being, Indian
society provides a fertile ground for active engagement with social issues.
Moreover, historically, the Independence Movement in pre-independent
India, and later social movements led by Vinoba Bhave and Jai Prakash
Narain, provided a strong impetus to building an empowered society
through creating social leaders who would facilitate economic and social
change. Many individuals who participated in such movements or got
inspired by them went on to establish social organizations which were
later recognized as social entrepreneurial ventures (e.g., SEWA, Amul,
Barefoot College, Sulabh International). These ventures have influenced
many social enterprises in other regions of the world.

* * *

It is in this background that this volume aims to provide a more contex-

tual understanding of social entrepreneurship in the Indian socio-­
economic-­political discourse. While Indian society shares many social
issues and venture models with other regions (e.g., microfinance, solar
energy enterprises), it is also characterized by its specific socio-economic
problems and institutional voids. This collection of studies provides a
more nuanced insight into this distinctiveness.
This volume is very much needed, given that the academic discipline
of social entrepreneurship has started growing in India. Many academic
institutes have started offering a full-time course (e.g., Tata Institute of
Social Sciences, Ambedkar University, Delhi) or specific courses (e.g.,
IIM Ahmedabad, IRMA, XLRI) on the subject. Furthermore, research
scholars have started doing their doctoral thesis specifically on social
entrepreneurship, thus creating the first generation of academicians with
a specialization in the discipline. This book may mark the beginning of
more such India-centric academic books on social entrepreneurship.
x Foreword

A large number of social entrepreneurial opportunities exist in socio-­

economic disequilibrium. Indian social entrepreneurship is primarily
focused on addressing these large social and economic disparities. A large
number of Indian social entrepreneurial ventures work on the issue of
“providing access” to basic social goods and services (e.g., education,
health care, markets, energy, water) to the less-resourced and low-income
communities. These “markets of the poor” pose unique challenges, since
they are mostly characterized by low and irregular income, low savings
and access to credit, are often remote, dispersed and lack basic infrastruc-
ture, and so on. The challenge is even more for Indian social entrepre-
neurs since they mostly operate with limited funding and investments.
Therefore, to service these markets, the social entrepreneurs have to inno-
vate new solutions and models, which are unique in the Indian scenario.
In her chapter, Runa Deepika (“What Kind of Business Models Lead
Social Enterprises to Sustainability?”) compares two such business mod-
els which aim to negotiate these ambiguities.
Another major reason for definitional dilemma within social entrepre-
neurship is the lack of shared and standardized impact measures. Social
value creation and impact generation is the defining characteristic of
social entrepreneurship. However, without the shared impact measure or
normalized social impact measures, the definitional dilemma will con-
tinue to persist. In this context, the chapter by Anar Bhatt (Why Worry
About Your Impact? Rationale, Challenges, and Support for Indian Social
Enterprises’ Impact Measurement) discusses different impact measures
and highlights the bridging point in this very conceptual conversation.
In a larger context, if social entrepreneurship as a practice has to make
any noticeable impact on the society, it needs people with empathy and
motivation to engage in social entrepreneurship. There is a need to attract
more talent who can leverage on the opportunity/gaps, develop large-­
scale solutions and address these disparities in access. This makes the
question, “why do people become social entrepreneurs?” quite relevant in
a societal context. The chapter by Preeti Tiwari (“Foremost Motivational
Factors to Become a Social Entrepreneur”) explores this issue and high-
lights how tapping into the potential of youth as social entrepreneurs can
make a significant contribution in solving these societal problems.
 Foreword
   xi

Provision of public goods through private for-profit social enterprises,

however, also highlights a moral and political dilemma, which is relevant
in contemporary India. Constitutionally and legally many of these ser-
vices (e.g., education, health care) are basic rights of the people, and the
state is mandated to provide them. Providing these services even for a
small fee/price, which the social enterprises do, goes against the spirit of
the rights-based approach. Isabel Salovaara (“Is Social Enterprise the
Panacea for School-Education-for-All in India?”) explores this debate
between private provision versus basic rights in the context of primary
education. Education in India is getting privatized creating gaps in the
quality of education delivered to children from lower income families. A
social entrepreneurial lens on education in India is vitally important.
The large inequalities and disproportionate distribution of access in
India has also given rise to another model of social entrepreneurship.
These are social ventures in which bridging the rich-poor, urban-rural,
and class-, gender- and caste-based disparities is a key mission. They aim
to build empowered, self-sustaining communities and do so by social
mobilization and collectivization of communities to become self-reliant
in meeting their own needs. This empowerment of less-resourced and
disadvantaged communities has also given rise to the uniquely Indian
phenomenon of “collective entrepreneurship” or “community-based
entrepreneurship”. The study by Balram Bhushan (“A Need-Based
Innovation Cycle to Serve the Poor: A Case of the Mann Deshi Mahila
Group”) provides interesting examples of such innovation in empower-
ing the community through collective action. The study by Ashok Prasad
and Mathew J Manimala (Circular Social Innovation: A New Paradigm for
India’s Sustainable Development) gives useful insights into how collective
entrepreneurship, social innovation and circular economy creates the
ground for more sustainable development. These studies are uniquely
Indian in context and practice, and one may observe knowledge external-
ity in other contexts and practices.
In fact, one of the very unique and indigenous social innovations in
India are the Self-Help Groups (SHGs). These are small groups of the
poor, which tap into their social capital and thus empower them to make
changes in their own lives. SHGs started emerging during the 1970s–1980s
xii Foreword

through the initiatives of a number of organizations such as Mysore

Resettlement and Development Agency (MYRADA), Deccan
Development Society (DDS), Association of Sarva Seva Farms (ASSEFA),
Professional Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN), and so on,
by mobilizing village communities (mainly women) to form small groups
to help each other and take collective community actions. Later in the
1990s, with the facilitation from NABARD and government, these
SHGs started proliferating and have morphed into an invisible, yet pow-
erful, social movement for social change (Shukla, 2010b). Presently, there
are about 9 million SHGs covering more than 100 million (or more than
40%) households in India. Many of these SHGs have also transformed
themselves into social enterprises which cater to the needs of local devel-
opment through sustainable models.
While SHGs have been studied in the context of poverty alleviation
and financial inclusion, their role as vehicles of social change has not been
fully explored in the research on social entrepreneurship. In this volume,
the study on two SHGs by Sangita Dutta Gupta (“Social Entrepreneurship
Through Micro Entrepreneurs of Self-Help Groups”) looks at this aspect
of SHGs as social entrepreneurial ventures.
One distinctive aspect of social entrepreneurship in India is the emer-
gence of the support ecosystem. For social enterprises, even with proven
innovative models, it is essential to scale up to make any significant social
impact. For this they need financial support mentoring and access to the
market. Traditionally, such support used to come in the form of grants
from the government or the donor agencies, government-organized
events or just plain hard work. However, these traditional systems of eco-
systems are gradually receding and are getting replaced by the impact
investors and accelerators who provide holistic ecosystem approach to
social entrepreneurial development.
In particular, the impact-investing firms use venture capital like invest-
ment method while navigating the competing logics of financial pru-
dence and social impact creation. One article in this volume explores the
nuances of impact investing in India and its impact on sustainable devel-
opment. The study by Anirudh Agrawal (“Effectiveness of Impact
Investing at the Bottom of the Pyramid”) identifies the operating prin-
ciples of successful impact investing and the qualities they focus on in the
 Foreword
   xiii

ventures, which create social impact while giving the financial returns to
the investor. Similarly, the chapter by Shambu Prasad and Joseph Satish
V (“Embedding Diversity in Social Entrepreneurial Research: India’s
Learning Laboratories”) provide an insightful narration of how such
social movements form the backdrop of social entrepreneurship in India.
Given the emergence of impact investing, sustainable accelerators and
the role these new forms are likely to play in the scaling up of social ven-
tures in India, these studies provide useful pointers towards developing a
social entrepreneurial ecosystem in India.
This book aims to open a conversation on social entrepreneurial studies,
its impact and its possibilities in the government policy. However, there
are many things that the book does not cover, and I hope it would in the
later volumes. Some of the things that are not covered in the book are how
automation and digitalization will impact the social fabric; how and what
strategies Indian policy makers must choose to leverage the social impact
bonds in social value creation, how government policies can rejuvi-
nate micro-entrepreneurs in India and what role can social entrepreneur-
ship play in job creation in India. Finally, the field needs more quantitative
studies on social impact and externalities. These studies would further
resolve the definitional dilemmas and would also move the field ahead.

* * *

Overall, this book is a useful contribution to research literature on social

entrepreneurship with a specific focus on the Indian context. It covers a
vast canvas of areas and issues which form a distinctive feature of the
Indian landscape of this practice and discipline. More importantly, it
delves into those aspects of Indian social entrepreneurship which nor-
mally do not feature in studies on this subject. As one goes through the
chapters and studies, they open up new perspectives and lenses through
which one can, and needs to, understand this sector in India.

XLRIMadhukar Shukla
Jamshedpur, India
xiv Foreword

References
Broader, G. (2009, Fall). Not everyone’s a social entrepreneur, beyond profit,
30–32.
Mair, J. (2010). Social entrepreneurship: Taking stock and looking ahead.
Working Paper, WP-888, IESE Business School, University of Navarra.
Shukla, M. (2010a). Landscape of social entrepreneurship in India: An eclectic
inquiry. Paper presented in the 2010 Research Colloquium on Social
Entrepreneurship (June 22–25, 2010), Said Business School, University of
Oxford.
Shukla, M. (2010b, January 4). An invisible revolution in rural India. Wall
Street Journal. Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com/article/
SB126258063197814415.html
 Preface

There are many reasons that inspired us to put our heads together to
bring out this edited volume. The overriding driver was that India has
some distinctive social, economic and cultural characteristics that provide
a contextualization of the social entrepreneurship that is fairly unique.
In recent times, India has been moving towards a market-driven econ-
omy, which means that government-sponsored public services and public
subsidies are slowly diminishing. This, coupled with rising inflation, has
caused tremendous stress among those living below the poverty line in
India. The question that arises is, what market-driven solutions can be
devised to alleviate their hardships? Furthermore, the forces of climate
change are having an adverse effect on agriculture, weather and fresh
water availability. The agricultural sector accounts for 60% of employ-
ment in India. So how do we address the increasing problems of people
associated with agriculture?
To add to the complexity, the public healthcare system in India is
poorly managed while private healthcare is expensive. Any individual on
the margins may lose his entire savings if his loved once gets sick and
needs to be treated in a private hospital. Again, how can one create sim-
ple, efficient healthcare solutions to ensure that people do not get ensnared
in the poverty trap? Finally, dwindling resources and a rising population
in general, coupled with massive migration to cities such as Delhi,
Mumbai and Bengaluru, have created huge social problems. How can the
xv
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xvi Preface

people and the government address these problems? We believe that one
of the most prominent strategies to address these multifarious problems
is innovative social entrepreneurship. It has been acknowledged that
social entrepreneurship, using sustainable development models, can
address these problems and help society greatly (Hockerts, 2010; Hockerts
& Wüstenhagen, 2010; Mair, Mart, Iacute, Ignasi, & Ventresca, 2012).
Historically, India has led the way in social entrepreneurship through
the Sulabh Toilet Project, Seva Café, SEWA and also a plethora of self-­
help groups. Most recently, social enterprises like the TAPF, CRY and
Aravind Eye Care are striving hard to innovate and address social issues
in an effective manner. The increasing acceptance of social entrepreneur-
ship as a viable option can be seen not just from the rise of such enter-
prises but also by the trend in the top higher educational institutions in
the country, such as IRMA, TISS, IIT Chennai, IIM Bangalore, IIM
Calcutta, which have developed dedicated programmes on social
entrepreneurship.
Much of the work by scholars on social entrepreneurship in the Indian
context was published after the seminal book, The Fortune at the Bottom
of the Pyramid, by C. K. Prahalad (2004). The book considered the poor
as a potential market and explained how firms should innovate business
models and products to monetize this market. Since then social entrepre-
neurial research looked at social business models addressing goods and
services to the poor (Linna, 2012; Olsen & Boxenbaum, 2009; Seelos &
Mair, 2007). The downside of this research was that many firms ended up
marketing inconsequential products and services to the poor, of little
utility, such as Fair and Lovely Cream and microfinance products, lower-
ing their savings (Garrette & Karnani, 2009; Karnani, 2009).
More social entrepreneurial research came to light after the IPO of
SKS microfinance (Gunjan, Soumyadeep, & Srijit, 2010). In both the
Bottom of the Pyramid (BOP) business models (Karnani, 2011; Seelos &
Mair, 2007) and the SKS microfinance case (College & Baron, 2011;
Joshi, 2011), the social impact was considered implicit to the business
model. In other words, if a firm creates socially and sustainably relevant
products and services and sells them to the poor, this was considered to
constitute social entrepreneurship. The downside is that it does not cover
baseline studies and impact measurement post intervention, which is an
 Preface
   xvii

essential element for the legitimacy of the field in India. The work by
Sonne (2012) dwells on the emerging class of social entrepreneurs and
impact investment, which provides a neoliberal market perspective on
the emergence of the social entrepreneur while the study by Sonne and
Jamal (2014) maps and contrasts various social entrepreneurial
initiatives.
Recent institutionalization of social entrepreneurship practice and
impact investment in the UK and Europe (Harkiolakis & Mourad, 2012;
Heyman, 2013; Spear, Cornforth, & Aiken, 2009), clarifying financial
disclosures, social impact and development of both the social and market
space, calls for further theorization and operationalization of various ele-
ments of social entrepreneurship. Drawing from the institutionalized his-
tory of social entrepreneurship in the UK and Europe, this edited volume
strives to present empirical and theoretical peer-reviewed chapters, in
order to provide a deeper understanding of the social entrepreneurial eco-
system in India for scholars, entrepreneurs and policy makers (ICSEM,
2017). In terms of scholarship, this volume is a humble beginning, lim-
ited to exploratory and qualitative studies. We hope it will contribute in
some way to inculcating both the social entrepreneurial intentions and
social entrepreneurial business acumen across strata, from school and
university level, to village management and central government level
initiatives.
This volume is divided into two sections: Theoretical Contextualization
on Social entrepreneurship and, Sustainable Business Models and Impact
Investment. Each section has a series of dedicated conceptual and empiri-
cal papers. The chapters in the first part largely focus on conceptual
debates around social entrepreneurship in India, such as entrepreneurial
intentions, entrepreneurial empathy, dilemma around standardized social
entrepreneurial measures and problems with the social entrepreneurial
solutions to primary education in India. The chapters in the second part
study the self-help groups, impact-investing firms, circular economy,
accelerators and disruptive social entrepreneurial themes, weaving emerg-
ing trends and theory with the social enterprise cases from India. We
strive to provide empirical work that not only looks at the social innova-
tion from the market disequilibrium perspective and also presents a more
realistic perspective of the social entrepreneurship landscape in India.
xviii Preface

While this research work is of significant value, India still lacks specific
theorization and robust empirical validation and quantitative research in
social entrepreneurship (British Council India, 2015).
Future studies on social entrepreneurship in the Indian context would
do well to theorize and develop solutions around the following research
gaps. First, research must study different scaling models of social enter-
prises. It must study how social impact by social enterprises can be scaled
without grants or subsidies but through markets. Second, more research
is needed on the cooperative movement in India, beyond the dairy and
agriculture cooperatives, into newer areas of community self-sufficiency
and empowerment like renewable energy, education, healthcare and
water sharing. Finance is an important aspect of social entrepreneurship
and future research could explore newer models of impact investing,
quantitative and risk modelling of impact investing, microfinance and
public-private partnership (PPP) finance models, looking beyond impact
investing to public-private funding of social enterprises and social impact
bonds. Social entrepreneurs need support and guidance.
In this direction, research should also focus on how and what models
can be developed to support social enterprises. One such example is self-­
help groups, which can be replicated at different socio-economic levels of
society. Furthermore, we also need to research how to increase the pro-
ductivity and income of the members associated with the SHGs. Another
support mechanism is through the accelerators and incubators focusing
on social entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurship in India is in its
infancy. It needs extensive support and a social movement to develop at
each level of society, including national associations for social enterprise
to engage with government for redefining the tax breaks and incentives in
order to scale up social entrepreneurship.
To sum up, social enterprise addresses social problems and helps those
at the margins by using creative means (Defourny & Nyssens, 2010; Di
Domenico, Haugh, & Tracey, 2010) while simultaneously leveraging the
personality of the social entrepreneur (Smith, Besharov, Wessels, &
Chertok, 2012) and seeking rents both from the social problem and mar-
kets to ensure that the dividends generated while running the enterprise
are used for the benefit of the marginalized and not channelled towards
the shareholders (Yunus & Jolis, 1999). The promise of social
 Preface
   xix

e­ ntrepreneurship in a country like India is enormous as there are large

vicissitudes. We hope this volume is a window to that promise.

Copenhagen Business School Anirudh Agrawal

Copenhagen, Denmark
Frankfurt, Germany
BML Munjal University, Haryana, India Payal Kumar

References
British Council India. (2015). Social enterprise: An overview of the policy frame-
work in India.
Defourny, J., & Nyssens, M. (2010). Conceptions of social enterprise and social
entrepreneurship in Europe and the United States: Convergences and diver-
gences. Journal of Social Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 32–53.
Di Domenico, M., Haugh, H., & Tracey, P. (2010). Social bricolage: Theorizing
social value creation in social enterprises. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,
34(4), 681–703.
Garrette, B., & Karnani, A. (2009). Challenges in marketing socially useful
goods to the poor.
Gunjan, M., Soumyadeep, S., & Srijit, S. (2010). IPO in the Indian microfi-
nance industry: A SKS microfinance perspective. Advances in Management,
3(5), 23–30.
Harkiolakis, N., & Mourad, L. (2012). Research initiatives of the European
Union in the areas of sustainability, entrepreneurship, and poverty alleviation
by, 717, 73–79.
Heyman, M. (2013). The emergence and growth of social finance in the UK. Lund,
Sweden.
Hockerts, K. (2010). Social entrepreneurship between market and mission.
International Review of Entrepreneurship, 8(2; interested in the transforma-
tion of a sector induced by social entrepreneurship. More specifically), 1–22.
Hockerts, K., & Wüstenhagen, R. (2010). Greening Goliaths versus emerging
Davids—Theorizing about the role of incumbents and new entrants in sus-
tainable entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 25(5), 481–492.
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xx Preface

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failed promise. Economic and Social Affairs, (80).
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Bangladesh: How intermediaries work institutional voids. Academy of
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barriers to implementation. California Management Review, 51(4), 100–126.
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 Contents

Part I Theoretical Contextualization    1

1 Embedding Diversity in Social Entrepreneurial Research:

India’s Learning Laboratories   3
C. Shambu Prasad and V. Joseph Satish

2 Education Conversations: Situating Social Enterprise

in India’s Education Discourse  31
Isabel M. Salovaara

3 Factors Affecting Individual’s Intention to Become a Social

Entrepreneur  59
Preeti Tiwari, Anil K. Bhat, and Jyoti Tikoria

4 Why Worry About Your Impact? Rationale, Challenges

and Support for Indian Social Enterprises’ Impact
Measurement  99
Anar Bhatt

xxi
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that it should go with him if the vessel went down with
him and his people.

In the meantime, to increase the terror of the frightful

death which menaced the crew every moment, the
darkest and most cruel of all nights came on. No mild
stars, such as bring hope to the despairing, shone in the
heavens. Sky and sea were enveloped in dense
darkness and the raging hurricane continued without
the least abatement of its fury. Thus they alternated
between life and death, only half alive. But the dreadful
night passed at last and in the first glimmer of dawn, to
the unspeakable delight of the wretched crew, land was
seen in the distance. The Azores lay before their eyes
but, as the storm had not yet abated, Columbus could
not get near the shore. They had longed for a speedy
landing but, in view of the danger, they found it
necessary to hold off for four days. The Pinta had
disappeared and it was uncertain whether it had gone
down or whether Pinzon had taken advantage of the
storm and the darkness to forsake the Admiral and
reach Spain with the first news of the discoveries. At
last the storm subsided and Columbus lost no time in
coming to anchor. Several Portuguese came to the
vessel and offered food for sale and inquired whence
they had come and whither they proposed to go.

Learning from them that there was an oratory of the 63

Virgin not far from the shore, Columbus permitted half
of his men to land and fulfil the promise they had made.
He himself had grown lame in both hips owing to his
long watching and painful exertions and had to remain
on board, but he ordered them to return as soon as
possible so that the others might go ashore and perform
their vows also. They promised to obey him, disrobed
themselves, and went barefooted to the oratory. Several
hours passed but none of them came back. He waited
hour after hour but no one appeared. At last it was
night and still no one came. He grew suspicious but, to
learn the true state of affairs, had to wait until morning.
Morning came and then he was astonished to discover
that the Portuguese had overpowered the pilgrims and
placed them under arrest. Columbus was extremely
indignant at this treacherous conduct and, as his
protests were useless, he at last threatened that he
would not sail until he had taken a hundred Portuguese
prisoners and laid waste the island. His threat made an
impression upon them. They sent messengers to inquire
in the name of the governor whether he and his vessels
were in the service of the Spanish court. When
Columbus had convinced them of this by his letter of
credentials they released the prisoners. The governor, it
is said, had instructions from his King to seize the
person of Columbus, if he could, and imprison him and
his people and then quietly take possession of the
countries discovered by him. But as this could not be
done, because Columbus remained on board, he
thought it wiser to give up the prisoners and pretend
that they had not known they were Spaniards. Delighted
with the fortunate settlement of this troublesome
business, Columbus again set sail, pleased with the
prospect that all hardships and dangers were ended.
But Heaven had decreed that his steadfastness must
once more be tested.

The fearful storm broke out anew, the vessel was driven 64
from its course, the sails were torn, the masts wavered,
and at every shock of the waves the despairing crew
expected to be lost. In this desperate condition, which
had now lasted two days, the crew suddenly perceived
rocks, upon which the old and shattered vessel was
being driven. Had it continued in that direction a
moment longer it would have been destroyed, but
Columbus’ presence of mind did not forsake him in this
appalling crisis. A skilful turn which he made at just the
right time saved the vessel and all on board. He soon
recognized that he was on the Portuguese coast and
certainly at the mouth of the Tagus, so he decided to
come to anchor.

At daybreak he sent messengers, one to Madrid to 65

notify the King of Spain of his safe arrival, the other to
the King of Portugal at Lisbon to ask permission to come
up the Tagus to the city and repair his vessel.
Permission being granted, he sailed without delay to
Lisbon. The news of the approach of the famous vessel
rapidly spread through the city, and all who could, ran
to the harbor. The shore was crowded with people and
the river with boats, for every one was eager to see the
wonderful man who had achieved such an extraordinary
undertaking. Some thanked God for the favor He had
shown the bold navigator, others deplored the
misfortune of their fatherland in rejecting his services.
The King of Portugal himself could not now refuse to
pay his respects to Columbus notwithstanding his deep
regret that by this man’s discoveries Spain would greatly
increase its power and secure possessions which, but
for the folly of his advisers, he might have had. He
ordered his subjects to pay Columbus all possible honor,
to provide his men with subsistence, and also wrote a
very complimentary letter, inviting him to call upon him.
Columbus hastened to accept the royal invitation. Upon
his arrival the entire Court, by command of the King,
went out to meet him. During the interview the King
insisted that Columbus should speak sitting, and with
covered head, and displayed a lively interest in the
account of the discoveries and sought by flattering
appeals to induce him to engage in his service. It was in
vain, however. He might have offered him half of his
kingdom without causing him to waver in his devotion
to the Court to which he had dedicated his services.
After a courteous withdrawal and the necessary repairs
to his vessel he again set sail for the same Spanish port
(March 15) which he had left seven months and eleven
days before.

67
 Chapter IX
Columbus’ Second Journey in 1493—Several Islands Discovered
—The Spaniards Find their Fort Destroyed and the
Colonists Dead

Hardly had the news of Columbus’ approach reached

Palos before the people rushed to the harbor to see with
their own eyes whether it was true. As the vessel drew
near and they recognized upon its deck, one his son,
another his brother, a third his friend, and a fourth her
husband, a universal outburst of joy rent the air,
thousands of arms were outstretched in welcome to the
loved strangers, and thousands more shed tears of joy.

As Columbus stepped ashore he was greeted by the

roar of cannon, the jubilant clang of bells, and the
enthusiastic shouts of the multitude. Unmoved by what
would have turned the heads of ordinary men, he made
it his first duty to declare that the fortunate outcome of
his great undertaking was due not to himself but to
God. He went immediately to the church in which he
had implored the divine favor before his departure,
accompanied by his sailors and all the people. After
publicly acknowledging his obligations to the Almighty,
he proceeded to Barcelona, a city in Catalonia, where
the King and Queen of Spain were holding Court. Pinzon
had arrived at another Spanish port several days before
Columbus, with the intention of being the first to
announce the news to the Court, but the King had
ordered him not to appear except in the company of
Columbus. Thereupon the conceited Pinzon was so
disappointed that he fell ill and died in a few days.

At every place along his route Columbus was welcomed 68

by extraordinary multitudes from the neighboring
regions and heard his name pass admiringly from mouth
to mouth. At last he reached Barcelona, where the King
and Queen impatiently awaited him. The whole Court
household went out to pay him honor. The streets were
so densely crowded that it was almost impossible for
him to make his way. The procession moved in the
following order: Several Indians, in their native
costumes, whom Columbus had taken with him, were in
the advance; behind them, men carried the gold plates,
gold-dust, and gold ornaments which he had brought;
then followed others with samples of the products of
the newly discovered region, such as balls of cotton
yarn, chests of pepper, parrots carried upon long reeds,
stuffed animals, and a multitude of other objects which
had never been seen in Europe before; at last came
Columbus himself, the cynosure of all eyes.
 THE RETURN OF COLUMBUS FROM HIS FIRST
VOYAGE

To pay especial honor to Columbus Their Majesties had 69

caused a magnificent throne to be erected in the public
square where they awaited him. As he approached them
with the intention of kneeling as usual at the foot of the
throne, the King extended his hand to him to be kissed
and requested him to sit by his side upon a chair placed
there for him. Thereupon he modestly told the story of
his discoveries and displayed the proofs of them in the
objects he had brought. When he had finished his story,
both Their Majesties and the multitude of assembled
spectators knelt and thanked God that these great
discoveries, so rich in advantage to Spain, had been
made in their day. Thereupon all the honors which
Columbus had asked as reward were granted. He and
his whole family were ennobled, and whenever the King
rode out, the much-loved Admiral rode at his bridle, an
honor which up to that time had been enjoyed only by
princes and the royal family. But what pleased him most
was the royal order that an entire fleet for a second
expedition should be equipped.

In the meantime the King sent an ambassador to Rome 70

praying the Pope that he would confirm the Spaniards in
possession of the newly discovered regions and all that
might yet be discovered by them in the ocean. The
Pope, Alexander VI, drew upon a globe a line of
demarcation from one pole to another, at a distance of a
hundred miles from the Azores, and issued a bull
declaring that all land discovered beyond that line
should belong to Spain. At that time it was the rule that
a prince could hold possession of a newly discovered
country only when the Pope, as the divine
representative upon earth, had confirmed it.

The fleet was fitted out so rapidly that in a short time

seventeen excellent vessels waited at Cadiz in readiness
to sail. The desire to secure possessions and honor
induced an incredible number of men of all classes to
apply for participation in the expedition, but Columbus,
not being able to accommodate all of them, selected
fifteen hundred and paid special attention to the
provisioning of the fleet and the procuring of all articles
necessary to colonization. All sorts of implements were
provided, besides animals unknown in the new world,
such as horses, mules, and cows, all the European
species of corn, and seeds of many herbs and plants
which he believed would grow in that latitude. As he still
labored under the delusion that the region discovered
by him was a part of India, he gave it the name of West
Indies to distinguish it from the real India, because to
reach it he had to sail west from Europe. The Indies
lying to the eastward were at that time called the East
Indies.

Everything being ready, the fleet set sail from Cadiz 71

September 25, 1493. Columbus at first directed his
course toward the Canary Islands and arrived there
October 5. There he took aboard fresh water, wood, and
cattle, besides some swine, and set sail again from
Ferro, October 13. In twenty days, aided by favoring
winds, the fleet had covered a distance of eight hundred
miles. On the second of November, thirty-six days after
their departure from Spain, the fleet came to anchor off
an island which Columbus named Dominica, because he
discovered it on the Sunday which in the later Latin was
called “Dies Dominica,” or the “Day of the Lord.”
Dominica is one of the Lesser Antilles or Caribbean
Islands. As he could not find good anchorage there he
sailed farther on and shortly discovered several other
islands, some of them of considerable size, such as
Marie Galante, Guadeloupe, Antigua, Porto Rico, and St.
Martin.

Upon Guadeloupe they observed a magnificent waterfall 72

plunging over a lofty and jagged cliff with a roar that
could be heard three miles away. At first no natives
were visible, as they had deserted their huts and fled to
the mountains. At last some of the Spaniards who had
been sent out brought in two boys who asserted they
were not born on the island but had been forcibly
carried away, by these natives, from a neighboring
island. Soon six women were found who piteously
implored help, saying that they had been seized and
condemned to slavery. The dreadful news was learned
from them that the natives of this island were in the
habit of roasting and eating male prisoners taken in
their battles, and that the women were carried off by
them notwithstanding their piteous appeals. Columbus
found that what these women and the cacique,
Guakanahari, had told him previously of the barbarous
practices of these islanders, was true. Almost
everywhere that he landed he met with a hostile
reception and everywhere he found traces of the
inhuman practice of cannibalism. With horror they saw
the bones and skulls of slaughtered human beings lying
around almost every dwelling. This and his desire as
soon as possible to gladden the Spaniards who had
been left at Hispaniola, induced Columbus not to remain
longer at these newly discovered islands, especially as it
was useless to try to communicate with the natives. He
resumed his voyage therefore and, on the twenty-first
of the same month, safely arrived at a spot which was
only a day’s journey from Fort Navidad.

Some of the crew sent ashore returned with the

alarming news that they had found the dead bodies of
two men on the beach fastened to a piece of wood in
the shape of a cross. They could not decide whether
they were Europeans or natives as decomposition had
made them unrecognizable. This news made Columbus
anxious as to what might be disclosed on the following
day. He passed a restless night and as soon as the
morning broke hastened to discover whether his fears
were groundless or not. As he approached the heights
of La Navidad he sprang into a boat and was rowed to
the shore. How great was his astonishment not to find
the Spaniards he had left there nor the fort they had
erected, only some fragments of it, torn clothes, broken
weapons, and utensils! The sight told him all and, as
further evidence of the dreadful fate of the vanished
colonists, eleven corpses were found a little distance
away, showing the signs of murder. As they were
deploring the fate of these unfortunates and considering
plans of revenge, the brother of Guakanahari met them
and gave them a detailed account of the calamity.

It was substantially as follows: Hardly had Columbus 73

sailed when the men left behind disregarded the
excellent advice and the instructions he had given them.
Instead of treating the natives in a kindly manner they
became so unjust and practised so many excesses that
the natives, who had regarded these white men as
celestial visitors, found that they not only were not
better but were much worse than the dark-skinned men.
The white commander attempted to restrain them but
they paid no heed to his orders or his warnings, refused
to obey him, and overran the island, committing
robberies and deeds of violence. At last they began to
ravage the territory of the cacique of Cibao, where the
gold was found. Infuriated by their atrocities, he and his
people at last took up arms and overpowered them,
then surrounded the fort and fired it. Some of the
Spaniards were killed in its defence, others took to their
boats but were soon drowned. He further stated that his
brother, who had remained faithful, notwithstanding all
these outrages, took up arms for the Spaniards but
received a wound in a battle with the cacique of Cibao
and was still suffering from it.

Columbus’ men were eager to take a bloody revenge 74

but he was too wise and humane to consent to any
such scheme. He tried to convince them how necessary
it was to the safety of this island and the new colony to
conciliate and secure the good-will of the natives. He
visited Guakanahari and found him still suffering from a
wound made not with European but native weapons.
The loyal, steadfast conduct of the cacique confirmed
the truth of his story. He also sought to convince
Columbus in every possible way of his unswerving
loyalty and presented him with eight hundred little shells
upon which the natives set a high value, besides a
hundred gold plates, and three gourds filled with grains
of gold, for all of which Columbus gave him several
European trifles.

After this, Columbus conducted his people to a more

comfortable and healthier region where, near the mouth
of a little stream, he decided to establish a regularly
fortified city in which those remaining would have a safe
and convenient dwelling-place. No one was allowed to
be an idle spectator. By the united efforts of so many
hands the first little city built by Europeans in the New
World arose and was named Isabella by Columbus, in
honor of his Queen.

75
 Chapter X
New Discoveries—Columbus in Great Danger—Uprising of the
Natives

During the building of the city of Isabella Columbus had

to contend with a thousand difficulties which only a
spirit like his could overcome. The Spaniards, who were
naturally lazy, became still less inclined to put forth
unnecessary exertion in that hot climate, and loudly
protested against a manner of life the demands of
which they had not foreseen. They had gone there with
glowing expectations of securing great treasures and
had been promised an easy, pleasant life, whereas they
had to toil day after day with hired men in the blazing
sunshine. Again, the unhealthy atmosphere induced
sickness and little by little a deprivation of those
necessities of life which were indispensable to these
European weaklings. Where were the golden mountains
which, it was promised them, they should visit? They
had no chance to go, for the Admiral was fully
determined to complete the work of building the city
before he allowed them to penetrate the interior of the
island.

These were the causes of the discontent which 76

increased day by day and at last led to a conspiracy
against the life of Columbus. Fortunately the fire was
discovered while it was still smouldering. The
ringleaders were overpowered, some of them were
punished, and others were sent to Spain to be made an
example of. At the same time Columbus besought the
King to send him speedily reinforcements of men,
besides fresh stocks of provisions. In the meantime, to
remove the dissatisfaction and quell the mutinous spirit
of his men, he allowed a part of them to make an inland
expedition under command of the chevalier Ojeda, and
later he conducted one himself, to impress the natives
with the sight of a European military force. With this
end in view he marched his men in close ranks, with
banners flying and with field music playing, and also
had his cavalry execute manœuvres which astonished
the natives who had never seen horses before and
thought horse and rider were one. The Indians fled to
their cabins when they beheld the Spaniards and
imagined themselves secure when they had fastened
the entrances with fragile bamboos. Their route lay
through the gold region of Cibao. All that the natives
had said about this region was found correct. The mines
were not worked, for the natives would make no effort
to find a metal for which they had no use, but in every
stream the Spaniards found gold grains which the water
had loosened from the mountains and washed down.

Delighted with their discovery the Spaniards returned to 77

Isabella. The city was in a wretched plight, the means
of subsistence were fast disappearing, for the work of
building had left no time for cultivating the land, and
sickness was rapidly spreading in that hot, unhealthy
region. Fortunately this was not the first time Columbus
had had to struggle against difficulties. Previous
experience had increased his skill in overcoming them
and the repeated dangers to which he had been
exposed had made him all the more resolute and
steadfast in meeting each new one. Once more he set
about overcoming these and restoring quiet. As soon as
this was accomplished he decided to go in quest of new
discoveries. Appointing his second brother, Don Diego,
regent, and placing Pedro de Margrite in command of
those remaining behind as captain-general, he himself,
with one large and two small vessels, or caravels, put
out to sea and sailed to the west. The first important
discovery on this voyage was the island of Jamaica. As
soon as he had come to anchor he sent a boat’s crew to
ascertain whether there was sufficient depth of water
for him to enter the harbor. The crew soon encountered
a great number of canoes filled with armed natives who
strove to prevent a landing. As they could not effect it
peaceably they greeted them with such a shower of
arrows that the crew had to retreat. As the harbor
eventually was found secure Columbus entered it, made
some repairs on his vessels, and spent the rest of the
time in examining the country. Its conditions seemed to
him superior to those of Hispaniola. He made no delay,
therefore, in taking possession of it in the name of the
King of Spain. From there he sailed to Cuba to see
whether that country, previously discovered by him, was
an island or part of the mainland. In doing this he
encountered a succession of dangerous mishaps,
compared with which his previous ones were
insignificant. He met with a terrible storm in the most
dangerous part of a region entirely unknown to him. He
found himself in the midst of rocks and sand bars which
threatened the instant destruction of his vessels. He
also ran into shallows which made his vessels leak so
badly that it required the exertion of his entire crew at
the pumps to keep them from sinking. He also had to
contend with the dangers of hunger and thirst, and, if
by chance they secured subsistence, he was the last to
avail himself of it, as he was more solicitous for his
companions than for himself. He also had to struggle
against the dissatisfaction and despondency of his men,
who assailed him with reproaches though he had shared
so courageously all their deprivations and dangers.

At various landings which he made in Cuba he learned 78

from the natives that it was an island. In some places
the air was so full of birds and butterflies that the sun
was obscured and the day was as dark as if there were
a storm. At the north side of the island they found the
ocean thickly filled with little, low islands, to which he
gave the general name of the Queen’s Garden. Among
these islands they met a canoe filled with fishermen
who came on board the Admiral’s vessel to make him a
present of their catch. In return Columbus made them
some little presents to ensure their friendship.

The unceasing and almost superhuman wear of mind 79

and body at last seriously affected his health. Utterly
exhausted and unable to sleep, he fell into a lethargy
which deprived him of sense and memory. Fearing that
he might not recover, they hastened to get back to
Isabella as best they could. There he found a remedy
for his troubles more potent then any physicians could
provide. His favorite brother, Bartolomeo, who had been
sent by the King with more men and supplies, had
arrived. Thus he had double cause for joy. These two
brothers, who were devotedly attached to each other
and had similar tastes, had been separated thirteen long
years. Bartolomeo’s arrival could not have been more
fortunate. The Admiral’s illness and the wretched
condition of affairs at Hispaniola required the services of
just such an intelligent, brave, and experienced man
and, had he not come just when he did, there is little
doubt Columbus and the entire colony would have
perished. This unexpected good fortune not only
worked Columbus’ recovery but placed him in a position
to prevent the destruction of the new colony. During his
absence everything had been thrown into confusion.
Two-thirds of the colony had fallen victims to the
diseases common in that latitude. Margrite, who had
been made captain-general, had become a rebel, but as
he could not carry out his purposes, had escaped to
Spain upon one of the vessels with Buil, his fellow-
conspirator. The soldiers under his command were
scattered over the island without a leader and had
committed all kinds of outrages. Because of this the
natives had become embittered toward the Spaniards
and had murdered many of them.

Such were the conditions which threatened the 80

destruction of the young colony.

The worst of all was the fact that the natives, hitherto
so peaceful and friendly, at last began to realize the
danger which menaced them. Made wiser by their
experiences, they looked into the future and saw, with a
shudder, that a longer stay of these strangers, whom
they at first had reverenced, meant famine and slavery
for them. With the idle life to which they were
accustomed, and in that hot climate, very little food was
required for daily subsistence. A handful of maize and a
[18]
little roasted cassava were all they needed. Now,
they noticed with surprise, that one Spaniard ate more
at one meal than four of them would eat in a whole day,
from which they concluded that it would not be long
before everything on the island would be consumed and
they would be left victims of hunger.

These observations and the daily spectacle of deeds of 81

violence committed by the Spaniards, at last convinced
the natives they must either throw off the yoke or
forever wear it. They had courage enough to make the
attempt. They took up arms and united themselves
under their caciques into a large army, numbering about
one hundred thousand. Columbus did not shrink before
the danger confronting the colony though he deeply
deplored the bitterness which had been caused among
the natives by the outrages committed by his inferiors.
His chief hope, that these poor and ignorant heathen
might be led to accept the Christian religion, was now
dissipated and he realized that blood must be shed
among those who might have lived together peaceably.
In the midst of these discouragements the faithful
Guakanahari visited him and tendered him his sympathy
and help. This steadfast friend of the Europeans had
already incurred the enmity of the other caciques for
protecting the strangers; and hence, in self-defence, it
became necessary for him to side with the Spaniards.
Columbus cordially thanked him and accepted the
service of his warriors.

82
 Chapter XI
The Natives are Subjugated—Columbus is Traduced in Spain—
He Returns to Europe and Suffers Many Hardships on the
Voyage

With the two armies confronting one another the time

had come which must decide for either the lives of the
Spaniards or the freedom of the natives. Upon the one
side were a hundred thousand Indians, armed with
clubs, spears, and arrows, the latter tipped with bone or
flint. Upon the other were only two hundred infantry
and twenty cavalrymen, supported by a small force of
Indians under the command of Guakanahari. The
contrast was great, but what the Europeans lacked in
numbers they made up in the science of war, as well as
in their weapons, horses, and hounds—that hunted
Indians as if they were game. The risk was equally
great on both sides and the issue of the battle
apparently uncertain. Columbus attacked the Indians
fiercely. The roar of musketry, the neighing of horses,
and bellowing of the hounds so bewildered the savages
that after a brief and unorganized resistance they took
to flight. Some of them fell by the sword, others were
trampled upon by the horses or torn by the hounds,
while others were taken prisoners. The rest fled to the
forest. Thus was it decided that these innocent people
should bow their necks to the yoke of European slavery.
Columbus lost no time in taking advantage of his
victory. He traversed the whole region and wherever he
went established his authority without a shadow of
resistance. In a few months the entire populous island
was under Spanish rule.

Margrite and Buil, the two deadly enemies of Columbus, 83

meanwhile had reached Spain. He knew that they would
spare no pains to belittle his services in every way they
could and to convince the suspicious King of Spain that
the discoveries made by him were of very small
account. He saw a storm coming which would certainly
overwhelm him if he did not take measures to avert it.
The only means of doing this was to send the Spanish
Court some conspicuous proof of the wealth which he
had promised would accrue from his discoveries; and to
place himself in a position to furnish such proof, he
found it necessary to make extortionate demands upon
the poor Indians for contributions. He ordered that the
islanders living in the gold region should bring to him
quarterly a certain quantity of gold-dust and all the
others twenty-five pounds of cotton wool. This was
more than the poor people could furnish. As they had
been accustomed from youth to a life of idleness, it
became unendurable for them to search for gold and
gather cotton wool day after day like slaves. Their
sustenance was growing scarcer each week and yet the
Europeans cruelly drove them to their tasks. As they
could not furnish what was demanded of them, even
with their utmost exertions, they determined to carry
out a plan possible only for those in a desperate
condition. Counting upon the gluttony of the Europeans,
they thought it feasible to compel them to leave the
island if they stopped planting maize and cassava. They
unanimously destroyed their crops and fled into
unapproachable mountain places, where they subsisted
upon fruits and wild turnips, but the unfortunates were
soon the victims of their own scheme. They quickly felt
the pangs of that hunger which they thought would
overcome their oppressors. Some of them were swept
away in a lamentable manner, others were carried off by
contagious diseases, and the remainder were so
exhausted that they could not bear the burdens
imposed upon them. As far as the Spaniards were
concerned they did not suffer much from this desperate
scheme, for by their own exertions and by the arrival of
subsistence from Europe they were protected from utter
want. The hope of the poor natives, that they might
survive the intruders, perished.

In the meantime the storm which Columbus saw rising 85

in the distance at last burst upon him. Margrite and Buil
had so belittled the importance of his discoveries and
pictured his accomplishment in such odious colors that
the Spanish Court lost its confidence in him. The King
decided to send a representative to the West Indies to
investigate affairs and report. This man, Juan Aguado,
was far from having the ability or insight to discharge
such a duty. Puffed up with his new importance, Aguado
came to Hispaniola and hastened to impress the Admiral
with his dignity. He met Columbus in a most
contemptuous manner and invited all—Spaniards as well
as natives—who had any complaints to make, to appear
before him. He eagerly seized upon every charge which
the discontented brought against Columbus, without
inquiring into its truth or falsity, so that he might collect
a mass of individual complaints which should exhibit the
man whom he hoped to destroy in the worst possible
light. Columbus, as we know, could endure much, but
this new affliction bore heavily upon him. He resolved to
go to Spain at once and make a personal explanation to
the King and Queen, leaving the issue to their sense of
justice. In pursuance of his plan he appointed his
brother Bartolomeo as adelantado, or governor of the
island, during his absence, and a certain man, named
Roldan, to have military command. This was
unfortunate as the latter was an unprincipled
adventurer.
[19]
On the tenth of May Columbus left the island with 86
two new vessels and two hundred and twenty men. To
make as speedy a voyage as possible he steered in a
direct course for Spain. He did not know how much this
would prolong the voyage. He had to learn by
unfortunate experience what every seaman now knows,
how uncertain the trade-winds make such a course. It is
well known now that vessels returning from the West
Indies, in order to evade these contrary winds, must
steer farther north. He soon discovered the difficulties of
the course he had selected but, as he was not
accustomed to yield to obstacles, he pushed on all the
more resolutely. His voyage was so greatly protracted,
however, that after three months he had little prospect
of reaching its end. His troubles were still further
increased by the diminution of his supplies, and at last
his crew were reduced to a very small portion of bread.
Hunger at last made them so furious that they were
resolved to slaughter the Indians on board or, if that
were not allowed, to throw them overboard so that the
rest might have enough to eat. In this crisis Columbus
once more showed that humane feeling which was
always characteristic of him. He firmly refused to permit
it and explained to them that these unfortunate Indians
were their companions, sharers in a common necessity,
and had as much right to food as themselves. By these
and similar representations he appeased them
temporarily. Before they had time to renew their
inhuman demands Heaven itself interposed and ended
all troubles. The coast of Spain was in sight!
87
 Chapter XII
Columbus is Graciously Received by Ferdinand and Isabella—His
Enemies Unable to Shake their Confidence in Him—The
Third Voyage in 1498—Discovery of the Island of Trinidad
at the Mouth of the Orinoco

Serenely conscious of the value of his services, but with

that modesty which is characteristic of all noble spirits,
the calumniated world-discoverer approached the
throne of his sovereign to establish his innocence of the
false accusations made against him. But it was not
necessary for him to defend himself, for his mere
countenance impressed his royal judges at once with
the esteem in which they had previously held his
services, as well as with shame for their own credulity.
As soon as he had shown them a part only of the
valuable products he had brought with him, all their
suspicions vanished and they strove to compensate him
by every mark of honor. All that Columbus now
proposed was granted, the rights which he already held
in the newly discovered countries were confirmed, and
new ones added. His most urgent desire was the secure
establishment of the colony he had founded at
Hispaniola and to procure as many men for this purpose
as he considered indispensable. Besides this he wanted
a sufficient number of farm laborers and artisans of
every kind so that he might be able to meet all the
requirements of the colony.
Unfortunately it was not easy to find many Spaniards 88
who were ready to sail with the Admiral to the New
World, for many of the emigrants had returned home
and were not as enthusiastic over the new countries as
they might have been. The gold there could be obtained
only by working for it and these Spaniards did not like
to work. Besides this the climate of Hispaniola was not
agreeable to many of them. They had come back with
bleached and yellow skins and satirically said that they
brought back more gold in their faces than in their
pockets. To procure men for the settlement of
Hispaniola, Columbus advised that the prisons should be
opened and that convicts sentenced to death or the
galleys should be sent to Hispaniola where they could
be useful in the adjacent mines. An order was at once
issued to courts of justice in Spain that all such
criminals should be sent to the West Indies. In this way
Columbus conveyed to the New World many bad
persons who naturally gave him much trouble.

Notwithstanding the issue of the royal order that 89

Columbus should be provided with everything he asked,
the equipment of the fleet progressed very slowly, for
the money promised him could not be raised at once
and those opposed to the undertaking put many
obstacles in his way, which retarded the progress of the
business. At last, however, two freight vessels left for
Hispaniola in January, 1498, but Columbus had to wait
until the thirtieth of May before he could weigh anchor
with six vessels deficiently manned. He had now
determined to take an entirely new course, hoping to
discover the real Indies. With this purpose in view, after
he reached the Canary Islands he sailed in the same
direction to the island of the Green Cape, which the
Portuguese had discovered. Immediately after leaving
the Canaries he sent half of his vessels directly to
Hispaniola to take fresh provisions to the colony and
ordered their captains to make the voyage as quickly as
possible. After passing the island of the Green Cape,
which is called the Salz Island, he anchored near a
small, barren one where the Portuguese sent their
lepers to be cured. Upon this small island there are
multitudes of turtles which swim there from the African
coast to lay their eggs in the sand. These animals are
very easily caught. When placed upon their backs they
cannot move. It had been found that to eat their flesh
and wash in their blood was a sure cure for leprosy, so
those afflicted with that disease were sent there to be
healed. Besides these turtles there was an immense
number of goats upon this island, which had sprang
from eight goats once brought there by a Portuguese.
There was neither tree nor stream on the island and the
poor lepers were forced to drink foul rain water which
collected in holes. There were at that time only seven of
them on the island.

From there Columbus steered to the southward until he 90

reached the equator, where his fleet was becalmed. The
sun’s rays beat down upon their heads fiercely and they
could find no shelter from its blazing heat. The wine-
casks split, all the water aboard was foul, the provisions
rotted, the vessels themselves grew so hot that the
despairing sailors expected every instant they would
take fire. Besides his own troubles and the despair of
his exhausted companions, he was afflicted by gout,
induced by his anxiety and sleeplessness. He lay racked
with pain, troubled with anxiety over the dangerous
condition of his vessels, tormented with the heat,
without the comfort of a drink of fresh water. At last the
heavens had pity upon him and sent such an abundant
rain that the men could hardly remain upon deck. It did
not greatly abate the terrible heat, but they secured a
supply of fresh water, and, as the calm disappeared,
hope once more arose in their half-lifeless breasts. They
eagerly implored him not to persist in sailing farther
south and this time he yielded and took a southwesterly
course.

After sailing several days in that direction, upon the first 91

of August, 1498, the welcome shout of “Land, land!”
was heard from the mast-head. It was heavenly music
in the ears of the hungry and exhausted seamen who
had been tossing about so long. The island which they
observed was covered with three hill-tops and so
Columbus named it Trinidad, which name it still bears. It
lies not far from the mouth of the Orinoco River, which
empties into the sea with such force that the fleet was
very unsafe. The waves dashed and broke against them
fiercely and one vessel had the misfortune to be caught
in this mighty wave rush, and for a time was in great
danger of being destroyed. Finding himself in the midst
of a terrible battle of the waves which tossed his vessels
up and down, to the right and left, as if they had been
feathers, he had to exert all his skill to escape from this
dangerous spot through a channel which had such a
cruel aspect that he named it La Boca del Drago (the
Dragon’s Throat).

Columbus was now fully convinced he had reached the

mainland, for no island could contain such a mighty
river as the Orinoco. He steered still farther to the west
along the coast and landed at different places. He found
that the natives of this country had many of the
characteristics of those in Hispaniola, only they were
more intelligent and courageous and were of whiter
skin. They were also decorated with gold ornaments
and costly pearls, which they willingly exchanged for
European trifles. One of them came to Columbus upon
one occasion without any attendants, while he was on
shore seeking fresh air as a relief from his ailment. He
boldly approached the Admiral’s camp, removed his red
silk cap, and placed a gold crown on his head in its
place. Columbus decided the native must be a cacique
and took pains that he should be properly treated.

These Indians wore a soft woollen cloth wound about 92

the head, and their bodies from the waist to the knee
were covered with a similar cloth. They had long but
well-kept hair and their weapons were shields, bows,
and arrows. Columbus would gladly have remained
there long enough to ascertain something of the nature
of the inland country but the wretched condition of his
vessels and his continued indisposition forced him to
abandon further investigation and sail to Hispaniola.
Upon this voyage he discovered the island of Margarita,
which has become so famous for its pearl fisheries.

Worn out with illness and the incessant strain upon him,
he at last reached the colony, to take a long rest from
his cares and troubles.

93
 Chapter XIII
Wretched Condition of the Colony—Vasco da Gama Sails around
the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies—Ojeda’s
Undertaking—Cabral Discovers Brazil

The time for rest and recovery had not yet come for
poor Columbus. Unforeseen blows, new difficulties, new
anxieties, new labors and dangers, so great that they
would have tested the endurance of a well man and
exhausted any man not worn down with trouble, were
awaiting him. His noble brother, Bartolomeo, during his
absence had conducted an expedition to a favorable and
not far distant region and had begun the erection of a
new city, which he named San Domingo in honor of his
father, Domenico. This city, which still flourishes, has
been for a long time one of the most important in the
West Indies and the whole island has gradually come to
take its name. While laying out the new city,
Bartolomeo, with a part of his men, advanced into parts
of the island where Columbus had never been, leaving
behind him the captain-general Roldan in command of
those remaining. This evil-disposed man betrayed the
confidence reposed in him and proved himself guilty of
blackest ingratitude.

Roldan had long waited an opportunity to overthrow the 94

Columbus family and make himself ruler of the island.
The departure of Bartolomeo and the absence of his
great brother seemed to offer just that opportunity. He
improved it to the utmost of his ability, sought to turn
the Spaniards left behind against Bartolomeo and his
younger brother, Diego, and succeeded so well that
most of them came over to his side. They chose him for
their leader, took up arms against the adelantado, his
plan being to seize all the supplies and take the fort at
San Domingo by storm. This plan, however, was
fortunately thwarted by the vigilance of some of the
officers who had been left to protect the fort, and the
leaders were forced to retreat to another part of the
island. There they strove to win the natives to their side
and so far succeeded that in a short time the whole
island was in the throes of revolution.

Such was the desperate condition of the spot where 95

Columbus had planned to rest! Still further to aggravate
his troubles, he learned that the three vessels sent by
him with supplies from the Canaries had not arrived. It
seemed certain to him that they had been lost by some
disaster or another upon the ocean. For a time
everything seemed as good as hopeless for Columbus.
Storms and ocean currents had driven these vessels out
of their prescribed course and, after being tossed about
in unknown regions of the ocean, they at last reached
Hispaniola, but upon that coast where Roldan and his
followers had settled. The cunning Roldan concealed his
seditious undertaking from the captains of the three
vessels and induced them to send a part of their crews
on shore, whom he agreed to conduct to San Domingo.
These men, the offscourings of the Spanish prisons,
gladly enlisted under his banner, as it would give them a
chance to rob and plunder. This was the first unpleasant
result of the course which Columbus had inconsiderately
taken.